Notes - a topee PDF

Preview

Summary

a topee...

Description

PHONOLOGY 1. PHONETIC VS ALLOPHONE

PHONOLOGY.

PHONEME,

PHONE

AND

A. PHONETICS according to J. J. Ohala (UC Berkeley) -

-

Also: Phonetic Science/ Speech Science. • Scientific method: find answers to questions. Everything that involves pronunciation. Goal: Studies the concrete, physical features of sounds in language. • We need to start from the basis: Language speech is sound. Sound can be recorded, visualize and analyse. How can be analysed? There are computers programmes (Praut, Audacity) that allow the analysis of sounds. • We measure: Duration: long sounds (voiceless vowels), short sounds (voiced vowels). Frequency: time in milliseconds, frequency in Hz, intensity in d5. Back vowels tend to have low frequency. Front vowels like -e- tend to be high frequency. We have combinations in the middle. Having those objective measurements allow us to make comparisons. E.g. compare the frequency values between sounds this gives a measurement of speech between native speakers and advanced students in English. • Fresh holes. Physical and physiological aspects of speech. Study of pronunciation.

i. THE SPEECH CHAIN Speech: a powerful but uniquely human instrument for conveying and propagating information. - End-points: transmitter and receiver are hidden. Difficult to study. - Articulatory phase of speech: easy to study.

-

BRAIN (completar) The brain is basic for speak production. Articulatory Phonetics: Vocal muscles Acoustic Phonetics: Sound Waves Auditory Phonetics: Ear – sensory nerves Phonology: Brain ii. HISTORICAL FACTS - Started in the second half of the 19th century. •

When the Americans began to immigrate to Britain, phonetics was very relevant. There was a lot of controversy about the spellings. Some

linguistics were in favour in following the British model. The British model was considered prestige. Tools: Phonetic Transcription: one sound, one symbol.

-

It is difficult to draw a line between Phonology and Phonetics. They complement each other. Phonology cannot exist without Phonetics. iii. PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS Variability of speech: coarticulation. Speech vanishes. Sounds change. - More studies on segmental aspects of speech. - Less studies on suprasegmental aspects: intonation, stress, lexical accent, tone, voice quality. -

iv. -

INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE Medicine & Physiology: diagnostics and therapy in communication disorders. Physics & Engineering: speech synthesis and recognition. Language Teaching: Pronunciation EFL Voice instruction

B. PHONOLOGY -

Boundaries between phonetics and phonology are blurred. Phonology is a subdiscipline of linguistics. Studies the more abstract, more functional, mental aspects of speech. GOALS: Study the systematic and functional properties of sound in language. Phonemic – phonological

i. SYSTEMATIC PROPERTIES - Variability vs. Invariant - Regularities and principles in individual languages/languages in general: Universals (Rules about languages) • If a language has 3 vowels, these will be /a/, /i/, /u/. • The voicing contrast is neutralized in Catalan in final position. Club, sang, Madrid. /klup/, /sank/ and /madrit/. • Toddler’s first words are /papa/ /tata/. When we learn to speak a language, the most difficult consonants to learn are the /r/ and the /l/. Not every child learns a language at the same speed, they need different acquisition breaks. • The syllable structure in Japanese is CV. ii. PRIMARY AIM OF PHONOLOGY - Set of discrete, symbolic categories. - Cognitive domain (not physical): “language is in the mind”. iii.

THE PHONEME

-

Sapir: “Phonemes are mental representations of sounds nd cannot be identical to the concrete realizations of such phonemes.”

-

The smallest unit of sound which causes a word to differ in meaning from other forms:

2

• • •

Spanish: /pero/ /peɾo/ English: /bæd/ /bɛd/ German: /nain/ - /main/

Phonemes in a given language form phonemic systems.

iv. -

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES Systematicity: sounds relate to each other in a systematic way. Rules: a phoneme is modified by the influence of neighboring sounds: • Palatalization (Sound change: object of study in Phonology): English: /s/ + /j/ /ʃ / /aɪ mɪʃu/ Majorcan Catalan: /k/ + /j/ /c/ / •

Great Vowel Shift (Another example of sound change): wife /wif/, mice /mis/ /i/ in Middle English became /aɪ / in Modern English. o

v. -

-

-

3

/

Sound changes occur throughout history. An example of this is the emerge of roman languages from Latin.

PROSODY Units of a size larger than a phoneme. Hierarchically related to each other: prosodic word, prosodic phrases, intonational phrase. Syllable structure: what sequences of sounds are permissible in a language. • English /s/ + /t/: stop • Spanish /e/ + /s/ + /t/: */estop/ (epenthesis) Stress (accent): contrastive • English: permit (‘permís) vs permit (‘donar permís’) • Spanish: género (‘Genre’), genero (‘l generate’), generó (‘He generated’) Tone: lexically contrastive use of pitch movement. This does not affect to English or Spanish or Catalan, but it does affect to Chinese.

2. LECTURE 2: ARTICULATORY PHONETICS A. THE PHASES OF SPEECH

1. Central Programming 2.Neuromuscular Phase

Central nervous system From motor nerves to muscles in the chest, throat, mouth

3. Organic Phase Rib cage, vocal folds, tongue, lips

4. Aerodynamic Phase Turbulent airstream

5. Acoustic Phase

Sound wave (vibrations)

6. Neuroreceptive Phase Sensation of sound

7. Neurolinguistic identification Identification of speech sounds

B. COMPONENTS OF SPEECH PRODUCTION -

Basic components: • Airstream mechanism: sets the air in motion. • Articulation: modifies the air flow (interrupts it, accelerates it) generation specific types of sound.

C. INITIATION TYPES: CLASSIFICATION -

-

Location of the initiator: • Pulmonic: the initiator is the lungs • Glottalic: the initiator the glottis • Velaric: closure between dorsal surface of the tongue and roof of the mouth (e.g. clicks) Direction of the initiatory movement: • •

Egressive: outward Ingressive: inward (e.g. Clicks)

D. PHONATION -

4

Modulations imposed upon the airstream as it passes through the larynx. Types: • Breath: the glottis is opened for the production of voiceless sounds [f], [s], [h]. • Whisper: the epilaryngeal tube is constricted so that the airstream becomes turbulent. • Voice: in voiced sounds the vocal folds are approximated (adducted) and in vibration as the airstream passes between them.

•

Creak: the glottis is shortened by constriction of the epilaryngeal tube, producing glottal vibration at very low frequency.

E. MANNERS OF ARTICULATION: CLASSIFICATION Oral / nasal: whether the airstream passes solely through the mouth (oral), the nose (nasal), or both (nasalized). Degree of constriction of the articulatory channel: completely closed (stop consonants) to completely open (vowels), Duration of constriction: maintainable, momentary or gliding.

-

i. MANNER OF ARTICULATION: STOPS The articulators come together to form a complete closure. Release: sudden efflux and influx of air resulting in a brief burst/noise. Pulmonic stop: plosives [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]. Final position: unreleased [p] ad [t] in American English.

ii. MANNER OF ARTICULATION I - Affricate: A stop released into a fricative [tʃ][dʒ] - Nasal: there is closure at some part of the mouth and the soft palate is lowered. The airstream escapes through the nose [m], [n], [ŋ]. • Nasalized vowels in French: vent [ɑ], vin [ɛ] - Trill: one articulator makes momentary contact with another: • Intervocalic [t] or [d] in American English, flap in Spanish [r] • Stops vs. Flap: duration, lightness of the contact. -

iii. MANNER OF ARTICULATION: FRICATIVES Fricative: a narrow channel is formed at some point of the vocal tract and the airstream is forced through it. • The hissing noise is more audible in voiceless fricatives than in voiced ones. • Voiced fricatives are produced with a “buzz”. • Aerodynamics: Flat [θ] and grooved fricatives [ʃ] [s] • Lateral fricatives: in Welsh, in lisping [ɬ]. • English: [f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z][ʃ] [ʒ]. • Spanish: [f] [s] [θ][ʒ] [x] [χ]. • Catalan: [f] [v] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ]. iv.

5

APPROXIMANTS Wider channel than fricatives. Difference with fricatives: Nonturbulent sound of voice. Unlike vowels, they cannot be prolonged. English: [j] (= yes), [w] (= what, who / The lips are rounded and the tongue is shifted backwards) (labio-velar = p.a) also known as semivowels or glides. [l] lateral (= the airflow is stucked in the middle and it escapes through the sides) approx. The tip of the tongue makes contact with the upper alveolar. [r] alveolar approx.

F. ORAL ARTICULATORY LOCATIONS -

-

-

Juxtaposition of “lower” and “upper articulators” (also “active” and “passive”). Upper articulators: attached to the upper jaw. • Upper lip • Upper teeth • Roof of the mouth • Epiglottis Lower articulators: lower jaw • Lower lip • Lower teeth • Tongue i. THE TONGUE Tip / apex: “apico-“ Blade: “lamino-“ Underside of the blade: “retroflex” Dorsal Surface: “Dorso-“

ii. PLACE OF ARTICULATION I: Labials: when the upper and lower lips are combined, it results in bilabial sounds. • English / Spanish / Catalan: [p] (Voiceless (the air escapes through the oral cavity = oral sound)), [b] (Voiced (oral sound)), [m] (voiced, nasal sound (the air escapes through the nasal cavity)) - Labiodental: the lower lip contacts the upper teeth -

English / Spanish / Catalan: [f] (voiceless), [v] (voiced) = fricative sounds. Both sounds are what we call minimal pairs. Dentals: the tongue is placed between the upper and lower teeth. • English: [θ] [ð] • Spanish: [θ] [ð] [t] [d] • Catalan: [ð] [t] [d] Alveolar: the tongue contacts the upper alveolar ridge. Alveolars comprise a large set of speech sounds: • English: [t], [d] [s] (voiceless) [z] (voiced) [n] [l] [r] Palatals: the tongue contacts some portion of the hard palate: palate-alveolar, palatal and post-palatal • English: [ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ j] •

-

-

-

-

• Spanish: [ʒ tʃ j] Velars: tongue contact (occurs in the velum) • English / Spanish /Catalan: [k g ŋ] Uvular: rearmost part of the soft palate-uvula • Spanish: [x] [χ]. The difference between these two sounds is that the [χ] is a back sound. In English we do not have this sound. • Glottal: the sound [h] is made by narrowing the glottis by partially adducting the vocal folds. iii.

6

DOUBLE-ARTICULATION

-

Co-occurrence of two articulators of the same degree of structure at different locations: • Labio-velar [w] is simultaneously articulated at the lips and the soft palate.

G. VOICED / VOICELESS -

-

Voiced sounds require vibration of the muscles in the larynx (vocal folds). Voiced sounds: when vocal folds are brought together (adducted) the glottis is closed. Less tension. • All vowels are voiced. • All nasals are voiced. • The approximants [l] and [r] are also voiced… This action blocks the airflow that builds up below, causing the vocal folds to vibrate as they are repeatedly blown apart and sucked together again. Voiceless sounds: the glottis remains open. Produced with greater airflow, more muscle tension.

H. VOWELS -

-

-

-

Vowels: produced by a vocal tract that is more or less unobstructed. Classification of vowels depends on 4 factors: • How high is the tongue? Low and high vowels. • What part of the tongue is raised/lowered? Front & back vowels • Degree of lip rounding: rounded vs. unrounded • Degree of tension: Tense vs. lax i. VOWEL HEIGHT Low vowels: the tongue is lowered from its “at rest position”: • English: /æ ɑ / • Spanish & Catalan /a/ Mid vowels: the tongue is raised halfway from rest. • English: /e ɛ ə ʌ ɝ ɔ o/ • Catalan: /e ɛ ə ɔ o/ • Spanish: /e o/ High vowels: raising the tongue above the mid-place: • English: / i ɪ ʊ u/ • Spanish & Catalan: / i u/

PERIPHERAL VOWELS = they are found in the periphery of the chart (e.g.[i] and [u]) ii. TONGUE ADVANCEMENT - Front vowels: the tongue is shifted/moved forward from its rest position • English: /æ ɛ e ɪ i/ • Catalan: / ɛ e i / • Spanish: / e i /

7

Central vowels: the body of the tongue is in its rest middle position between the upper and lower teeth. • English: / ə ʌ ɝ/ • Catalan: / a ə/ • Spanish: / a / Back vowels: require a back shift of the tongue • English: /a ɔ o ʊ u / • Catalan: / ɔ o u / • Spanish: / o u /

-

-

iii. LIP ROUNDING - Rounded vowels: produced with the lips pursued or rounded • English: / ɔ o ɝ ʊ u / • Catalan: / ɔ o u / • Spanish: / o u / - Unrounded vowels: produced with spread lips or neutral lips. • English: / i ɪ e ɛ æ ə ʌ ɑ/ • Catalan: / i e ɛ ə a / • Spanish: / i e a / iv.

TENSENESS Tense vowels: produced with more lip/tongue tension. Peripheral positions in the vowel chart. • English: /i e o u/ Lax vowels: less muscle tension of the tongue/lips. No peripheral positions in the vowel chart. • English: /ɪ ɛ æ ə ʌ ɑ ɔ ʊ/

v.

DIPHTHONGS Steady-state vowels/pure vowels: the positions of the tongue and lips are held steady. Diphthongs: there is an obvious change in the tongue or lip change. The change known as “glide” must be accomplished in one movement within a single syllable without a break. • English: /aɪ ɔɪ aʊ /

-

-

-

vi.

PRACTICE CONSONANT CLASSIFICATION 1) [ p b t d k g] 2) [p b m f v]

The common feature here is that they use the labial.

3) [s z x ʃ ʒ] 4) [m n ŋ] 6) [ j w] 7) [ l r]

All these consonants are stops. Fricative sounds

Nasal sounds Approximants Approximants and liquids.

8) [m b v d z g l r] 9) [p f ʃ s t k h] 10) [ t d s z n] 13) [ k g x ŋ] 8

all of them are alveolar all of them are velar sounds

14) [ ph bh]

aspirate and bilabial

15) [tʃ dʒ] vii.

IDENTIFY THE IPA SYMBOL A) Voiced labiodental fricative

[v] [ʧ]

B) Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate C)Voiced velar nasal

[ŋ]

D) Voiceless glottal fricative

[h]

E) Voiceless dental fricative

[θ]

F) Voiced palato-alveolar fricative

[ʒ]

G) Voiced alveolar lateral approximant H) Voiced labiovelar approximant

[l]

[w]

3. ACOUSTIC PHONETICS A. GOALS OF ACOUSTIC PHONETICS -

Physical aspects of the sound wave: duration, frequency, intensity. It facilitates us to differ vowel sounds. Limitations of transcription: conflicting aspects (vowel length). Transcription relies on the listener objective method. Measuring speech Sound waves: disturbances in the air started by a movement. Tendency toward equidistance: compression and rarefaction. Sound: Chain of compression and rarefaction occurs at 20 times/sec.

B. COMPRESSION-RAREFACTION

1) This black dotes are molecules in the air. 2) Molecules keep distance from each other. keep the same distance between them. 3) Same distance with group of molecules. 4) An external force pushes these molecules.

9

the molecules are going to

2) This is what is going to happen when producing vibrating sounds. The movement has a double trajectory: the molecules move away and come back (this is what is representing in point 2). 3) The effect of all these molecules in coming to the same position. Letter a: represents all the molecules coming together. Letter b: they separate from each other. 4) If you copy and paste the a and b movement, the result is number 4. The vibration is repeated. If we draw a line between these movements, we get a wave. We need this complete movement/cycle to produce vibrating sounds. When it is repeated many (20) times, the vibrate sound is perceived as a sound, if it is not repeated, there is a vibration, but it is no heard. C. TYPES OF SOUND WAVES: SIMPLE/COMPLES -

Simple: pure tune. Complex: combinations of a number of simple waves: • Many vibrations at different rates/frequencies. All speak sounds go from 0 to 4000 cycles per seconds. • Parts of a guitar string vibrating at different rates simultaneously. • Vocals folds.

C) It is what you get when you mix A and B. i.

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SOUND WAVES Waveforms of simple sound waves represent time (horizontal axis) and amplitude (vertical axis)

10

Waveform of a complex sound wave. You’ll need frequencies.

2

or

more

The longer the amplitude, the longer the sound

ii. -

-

TYPES OF SOUND WAVES: PERIODIC/APERIODIC Periodic: Same pattern repeated at regular intervals. Same distance. • Vowels • Voiced sounds Aperiodic: Same / different pattern repeated at irregular intervals. • Disphonia • Noise • An affricative sound is an example of aperiodic sound.

D. OTHER GRAPHS Other ways of representing speak sounds: -

-

Spectrum: • Frequency (horizontal axis) • Amplitude (vertical axis) Spectrogram: • Time (horizontal axis) • Frequency (vertical axis)

E. THE SOURCE-FILTER THEORY It explains how sounds are produced in our phonatory system.

(Spectrum) 11

As the sound source leaves the vocal folds, it is filtered by the vocal tract resonance. A filter can: • Amplify (make louder) • Attenuate (soften): you can make a sound louder or weaker • Nullify (cancel) • Pass the sound without any alteration

-

4. ENGLISH FRONT VOWELS A. ARTICULATION /i/ Lips are spread with some tension at the corners. The tongue shifts forward and raised towards the hard palate. The sides touch the upper teeth. Tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth. The velopharyngeal port is closed. The vocal folds are adducted for voicing.

-

i. SPELLINGS AND SAMPLE WORDS /i/ high, front, unrounded, tense • Spellings: o -ee- see, feel, teen o -ea- eat, tea, sea o -e- me, he, she o -ie- relieve, niece, cookie o -ei- receipt, conceive, weird o -i-/e prestige, machine, antique o -ey- key, hockey, money • Other spellings o -y- city, happy, lovely o -eo- people o -oe- Phoebe • Sound distribution = phonotactic = syllabic position o Initial: eagle o Medial: need o Final: ski

-

ii. -

12

ACOUSTIC FEATURES /i/ Low-frequency first formant (F1): 250 Hz High-frequency second formant (F2): 2800 Hz

Spectrograms help us to get objective knowledge. Arrows = indicate these dark regions dark regions are known as formants. The acoustic results indicate these values (Hz). They illustrate certain simple waves. They are important because they give us an objective measure. It is helpful to compare native and non-natives, if someone is getting better… Acoustic measurement complements subjective measurement. No one’s better than the other. They both complement each other. 1. L1 PERCEPTUAL SIMILARITY OF /i/ Pronounce the target sound /i/ in isolation and try to find the closest sound in Sp/Cat. The English /i/ is more tensed than the Spanish one.

-

B. ARTICULATION /I/ The mandible is lowered slightly. The lips are apart and relaxed. The tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth. The fr...