Notes CH 4 (Lesson 1-5) PSY 101 Slides Summary PDF

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PSY 101 Slides Summary Notes hope it helps!!! I made them with the slides. :)...

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Chapter 4 – Learning and Personality Lesson 1 – Classical Conditioning

LESSON 1 LINKS: Classical conditioning. Baby Albert Experiment

What is Classical Conditioning? 1. You are driving down a dark and curvy road when you narrowly miss a collision with a large truck that has edged over into your lane. You experience a rapid pulse, sweating palms, and your stomach begins to churn. After this near miss, you continue driving down the road. 2. A few days later, as you approach the same curve, you begin to experience the same reactions (your heart beats faster, your palms begin to sweat) but there are no other vehicles around. 3. What happened to you in this scenario? Pavlov’s Dogs The scenario you encountered can be explained by the research of behaviorists, such as Ivan Pavlov and John Watson. You may recognize the name Pavlov, as he was famous for his conditioning experiments using bells and food. Pavlov observed that when food was presented, a dog would begin to salivate. Pavlov began pairing the food and a bell and after subsequent trials, just the bell was enough to cause salivation of the dog. Watson’s ‘’Little Albert’’ 1. John Watson built on the conditioning work of Pavlov and maintained that emotions may be transferred from an object or an event to another person if the circumstances are right. 2. A young child named Little Albert was presented with a white rat, which would not normally elicit a fear reaction in him. Every time Albert was presented with the rat, a laboratory assistant behind the young boy struck a large steel bar with a hammer, which caused him to jump and cry. This procedure was repeated several times. On the eighth trial, the white rat alone elicited crying and Albert crawling away. How Classical Conditioning Works? 1. Classical conditioning includes two requirements. First, a natural relationship must exist between a stimulus, such as an object or an event, and a reaction. Second, the stimulus that elicits the reaction is paired with a neutral stimulus, typically for several trials. The outcome is that the previously neutral stimulus will, on its own, elicit the fear reaction. 2. First, there was a loud noise, which naturally elicits the fear reaction. Second, a loud noise was paired with a white rat, which then elicited the fear reaction. Finally, after multiple trials, the white rat alone was able to elicit the fear reaction. Terminology of Classical Conditioning The loud noise is what we refer to as an unconditioned stimulus (US); this is the stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response. The fear reaction is the unconditioned response (UR). The white rat in this example is our neutral stimulus (NS), meaning in normal situations, it would not trigger an automated response. When the loud noise and the white rat are paired over time, the white rat becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the conditioned response is the fear reaction. Generalization Generalization occurs when a person learns a response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same response to similar stimuli. For example, if a person was conditioned to fear dogs, generalization might take the form of that person fearing all four legged animals, such as a horse or a goat. In the classroom, another example of generalization would be a student becoming embarrassed in one classroom and then generalizing the humiliation to other classrooms as well. Extinction The second phenomenon is extinction. This is the gradual disappearance of an acquired response by the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. For example, Shelly constantly gets out of her seat during class and receives a reprimand each time from her teacher. The reprimand reinforces Shelly's behavior because she gets attention. The teacher decides to start ignoring Shelly when she gets out of her seat. Soon, Shelly's 'out of seat' rate begins to decline as she is not receiving attention for her poor behavior anymore. Classical Conditioning in the Classroom Classical conditioning has a strong presence in the classroom. A crucial step in developing a learner's appreciation of subjects such as science, math and literature, are to ensure that the learner's early experiences are associated with pleasant reactions. Unfortunately, if a teacher is unaware of classical conditioning and its concepts, a learner's initial experiences may become associated with negative emotional reactions leading to undesired behaviors in the classroom.

Lesson 2 – Intro to Personality Personality: 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

Personality can be formally defined as a given person's characteristic thoughts, feelings and behaviors. As you might imagine, psychology studies personality from a number of different angles. For example, some psychologists are interested in devising ways that personality can be accurately assessed. Psychologists also study personality disorders, or long-lasting patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that deviate from relevant cultural expectations. So, for example, anxiety only becomes regarded as a disorder when it seems excessive compared to relevant cultural norms. Still other psychologists study personality traits, which are a person's typical ways of thinking, behaving and feeling. States are transient or ephemeral, whereas traits endure over time. Studies suggest that personality results from a mix of both genetic and learning from our parents and friends.

Lesson 3 – Freudian Defence Mechanisms Sources of Stress: 1. Freudian defense mechanisms is basically what Freud thought that you do when you're faced with stress. And he thought that stress and anxiety are basically caused by your three parts of your personality fighting with each other. He thought that there was basically an id, an ego and a superego, and that your id has lots of impulses and things it wants to do; it's kind of childish, it doesn't really have self-control. Your superego is all self-control, so it's always limiting what the id wants to do. 2. And your ego is the conscious part of you that has to deal with this conflict. 3. and what Freud thought is when this anxiety gets out of hand, your ego starts to feel like it's under attack and so it tries to do one of these defense mechanisms to protect itself from having to deal with too much stress. 4. It's important to know that these are actually unconscious, so these are different than a coping strategy, which is something you decide to do to deal with stress. A defense mechanism is something that you're doing without really thinking about it to manage the conflict between your three parts of your personality. Levels of Defence Mechanisms And there are a bunch of these defense mechanisms, there's not just a couple. And some were originally developed by Freud, like projection, and others were actually added much later to the model, including ones added by a psychologist named George Vaillant. Not only did he add a bunch, but he actually classified them into levels - healthy ones, ones that are prone to being overused, etc. Levels are: Pathological – Immature - Neurotic- Mature 1. Pathological: • And these are kind of like it sounds like - if you mostly use these ones, that's bad; you're distancing yourself from reality so much that you probably are going to seem a little bit irrational or even insane to other people around you. • So as an example of the pathological one, you have denial, which is really what it sounds like. Something happens to you and you're saying that it doesn't, it just didn't happen. • So, if you failed a math test and you're really upset by it - this is maybe creating a conflict with your sense of self as being good at math - if you just told people that you did fine, that you didn't fail, that would be a real refusal to accept reality, and that's denial. And it's pathological because you're totally disconnecting yourself with what actually happened. You're not interacting with reality if you use this defense mechanism and that can lead to some serious problems. 2. Immature: • These are ones that are prevalent in mainly younger people, adolescents. If you use them too much, you are maybe unable to cope so effectively with reality, and people who are depressed or have personality disorders tend to use these as well. projection, where you basically take your unacceptable desire and you project it onto somebody else. And that's a way to sort of deal with • the stress that's caused by wanting something that society tells you shouldn't have. • Another one - this is one of the ones that was added later, this isn't an original one of Freud's - is passive aggression. That's another immature one. You're upset with your roommate; let's say, you made a cake and she ate it. So, you might forget to pick her up from work like you promised, but you really didn't forget, you just didn't do it. This is bad because you're expressing anger but you're not doing it in a way that's tied to anything that she can understand. You're not really dealing with the situation; you're just acting out. 3. Neurotic: • Then he had a level of neurotic ones, which are actually pretty common. They're semi-effective in the short term, they might get you to feel a little better, but they're really not that effective in the long term and they also can cause problems if you use them too much. Again, these are pretty common; a lot of adults do use neurotic defense mechanisms. • This is actually where a lot of Freud's original defense mechanisms were classed, and a classic one is displacement. If you were playing on a soccer team and your coach benches you and then you yell at everyone around you; you're really mad at your coach but you're taking it out on other people. • That's displacement. You're displacing the anger you feel onto somebody else. It helps you deal with the anger but it's not really that productive. • Another one is repression. To take it back to your World of Warcraft crush again, if instead you dealt with it by refusing to think about him and avoiding him, that would be repression because you're basically not acknowledging the way that you feel at all, which is not as bad as denying that it exists, but it's still not that healthy. 4. Mature: • These are obviously the good ones. They're healthy, they help you solve problems, and you integrate the conflicting impulses and everything is great. • One of them is sublimation. If you're a writer and you wrote a novel, you worked really hard on it, and it got rejected by everyone, that would be pretty depressing. But if when that happens you turn your disappointment and your sadness about it into work ethic; you decide to work really hard at fixing the book and making it the best you can, that would be a really healthy way to deal with it, and that's what sublimation is • It's turning negative emotions into real positive actions: making your book better because you were sad about it being rejected. • Another one is humor. You lose your job and then you joke about it with your friends. That's a way of expressing bad feelings but in a way that's easier to deal with. You're not denying it, but you're expressing it in a healthy way.

Lesson 5 – Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers • One type of psychology that offers a theory of personality is known as humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology attempts to help individual people achieve their full potential. It maintains that people are fundamentally good. Humanistic psychology is historically significant for its focus on good qualities and flourishing people, instead of suboptimal qualities and psychologically unsound ones. • Alongside Abraham Maslow, one of the forerunners of humanist psychology was Carl Rogers. He is especially well-known for nondirective or client-centered therapy. The therapist in this type of counseling tries to create a non-judgmental environment by being open and honest, accepting and empathetic. The term 'empathy' refers to the ability to recognize and feel the emotions of others, to put yourself in another's shoes. • The goal of a client-centered approach is to help clients themselves to find their own answers to their questions. In fact, it's called nondirective or client-centered therapy precisely because the client, rather than the therapist, is supposed to come up with the solutions. • But Rogers is also known for his theory of personality, which focuses on a self-concept, or a person's perceptions and beliefs about himself. • Rogers believed that three different components constitute the self-concept: self-worth, self-image and ideal self.

Self-Concept: 1.

self-worth, or self-esteem, is the set of beliefs we hold about ourselves. For Rogers, self-worth was heavily influenced by early childhood. He believed that for positive self-worth to develop, it was important for children to receive unconditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard is acceptance no matter what a person says or does and support in spite of mistakes and shortcomings. As a therapist, Rogers tried to provide unconditional positive regard for his clients.

2.

Self-image, meanwhile, is how we see ourselves, such as whether we see ourselves as being attractive or unattractive

3.

ideal self is the person we would like to be. Our ideal selves have fulfilled our goals and ambitions. But the ideal self can change over time. For example, the goals and ambitions that you have today may differ from the goals and ambitions you held when you were five. Although everyone's potential is unique, Rogers used the phrase 'fully functioning person' to describe all self-actualized individuals. Rogers believed that our self-concepts usually do not perfectly correspond to reality. For example, maybe a student earns good grades and is highly intelligent based on objective real-world criteria, but the student himself believes he is stupid. Rogers called this incongruence. He thought incongruence was partially caused by a lack of unconditional love and that incongruence caused anxiety. The idea of incongruence also means that the subjective self-concept can shape personality at least as much, if not more, than reality, and this was an important insight.

Lesson Summary: Here's what you've learned about Carl Rogers: he was one of the founders of humanist psychology, which is a branch of psychology that aims to help people achieve their full potential. His theory of personality involves a self-concept, which subsumes three components: self-worth, self-image and ideal self. Rogers developed an approach of client centered therapy to help people self-actualize, or reach their full and unique potential....