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Spring 2017 with professor Monti...

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History of Western Art I I.

II.

Chapter 1, “Art before History” A. Paleolithic 1. Venus of Willendorf, Nude Woman (28,000 BCE) a) Free standing sculpture in the round, subtractive technique b) Importance of fertility, large rounded form associated with bearing children, pronounced pubic triangle, small arms c) Naturally occurring hole which has been fashioned as a bellybutton d) Faceless, not meant to represent one specific person but a set of generalized types/values e) Carefully and intentionally textured head, unknown meaning f) Small, portable, possibility of intimate/private function 2. Lascaux Cave Paintings (16,000 BCE) a) Pigment was applied directly to walls b) Difficult to access, dark c) Hall of the Bulls (1) Excellent acoustics (2) Animals are moving in different directions, overlapping (3) Profile view maximizes information (a) Composite, twisted perspective (horns are shown slightly frontally) B. Neolithic 1. Retreat of glaciers, agriculture, animal husbandry, construction of towns 2. Catal Hoyuk, Turkey (6,000 BCE) a) Wall surfaces were prepared with plaster prior to the application of paint, advanced planning for appearance of walls b) Homes decorated with hunting images c) Differentiation in dress of hunters, distinguishes individuals d) Volcanic Eruption Landscape Chapter 2, “Mesopotamia and Persia” A. Advanced irrigation system increased fertility of land B. Sumerian 1. First complex agricultural systems and examples of recorded writing (cuneiform) 2. Cylinder seals: portable marks of social position made of precious stone 3. White Temple and Ziggurat, Uruk, Iraq (3,200 BCE) a) “God’s waiting room,” gods were associated with high places b) Highly visible and elevated, centrally located c) Four corners are oriented toward four cardinal directions, evokes cosmic order d) Bent-axis approach: incorporates angular changes of direction (stairs)

4. Head of Inanna, from Uruk, Iraq (3,200 BCE) a) Priestess or goddess b) First human face made in Sumerian culture c) Enlarged eyes express watchfulness and oversight of humanity d) Prominent eyebrow was considered desirable e) Stoic expression f) Attentiveness to aspects of human face g) Bilaterally symmetrical 5. Warka Vase, from Uruk, Iraq (3,200 BCE) a) Divided into friezes, figures are placed on a common groundline b) Inclusion of both sexes of animals express fertility c) Hierarchy of scale: shows viewer who is important (1) Clothing also indicates importance d) Eyes are shown frontally while rest of body is shown in profile 6. Votive statues: offerings to god, images of mortals a) Surrogates for worshippers C. Akkadian 1. Development of a kingdom to replace individual city states 2. Head of Sargon from Nineveh, Iraq (2,250 BCE) a) Beard indicates masculinity and accomplishments b) Abstraction of human form through complex pattern c) Bilaterally symmetrical d) Purposeful act of mutilation; destruction of eye, missing ears e) Slight smile 3. Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (2,254 BCE) a) Leader is represented as primary conduit of the divine b) Originally from Sippar, captured as booty and taken to Susa by an Elamite king (claiming victory as his own) c) Horned helmet represents access to divinity, twisted perspective explicitly shows both horns to indicate authority d) Muscular, marching mightily, gazing up only at the mountain where the god resides while everyone else gazes up at him e) Breaks standard of horizontal register, innovative compositional structure with regards to representing narratives D. Neo-Sumerian (Third Dynasty of Ur) 1. Statues of Gudea, from Girsu, Iraq (3,100 BCE) a) Uniform quality that represented all the physical and spiritual aspects of an ideal ruler (1) Portrait of a set of qualities rather than specific physiognomy (2) Abstracted wrinkles in cloth give sense of human form b) Hands quietly folded, indicating his piety and obedience to the gods c) Large ears, contemplation

d) Feathered eyebrow corresponds to ideal of handsomeness, alludes to gifts of intelligence e) Slight smile animates face and expresses presence of person f) Compact proportions suggests immovability of figure, sturdy and permanent (1) Represents desirable political stability g) Symmetry expresses peace and permanence, a presence that is unchanging and steady (1) Breaking symmetry slightly indicates a sense of animation h) Diorite: dense stone, hard to quarry and acquire (1) Explicitly referenced in inscription (2) Represents steadfastness, durability, permanence, longevity (3) Awareness of potential for destruction

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E. Babylonian 1. Stele of Hammurabi, from Susa, Iran (1,780 BCE) a) Sense of order and efficiency to complement his wisdom b) Volumetric presence and authority c) Dedication of laws to the god Shamash (elevated, seated) (1) Laws have authority of the god as well as the king (2) Expresses Hammurabi’s piety (3) Hammurabi is only slightly smaller, gives him a sense of authority as well F. Assyrian 1. Citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin, Iraq (710 BCE) a) Heavily fortified, expresses might, authority, and ability to preserve and defend rule b) Vigilance of gods as they watch over the rulers c) Lamassu: divine hybrid human-animal (1) Wear horned crowns to express divinity (2) Smiles indicate vitality and alertness (3) Five legs show all four legs from all viewpoints, attentively on patrol (4) Attentiveness to relationship between musculature and locomotion, pulsing with life Chapter 3, “Egypt under the Pharaohs” A. Art is shaped by religious worldview, expresses balance and order B. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt 1. Palette of King Narmer, from Hierakonpolis, Egypt (3,000 BCE) a) Ceremonial, meant to express eventual unification of Upper and Lower Egypt (1) One side depicts the conquest of Upper, the other depicts the conquest of Lower (crowns) b) Designed to hold coal, but was not meant for practical use

c) Ruler smites his enemies, represents ability to maintain order (1) Lean, fit, muscular d) Overseen by cow goddess Hathor e) Removal of shoes represents deference, hierarchy of scale f) Decapitated enemies neatly placed in rows, emphasis on order 2. Mastaba tombs: preserve and maintain body in afterlife 3. Pyramid of Djoser, Imhotep, from Saqqara, Egypt (2,630 BCE) a) Funerary complex b) Lighting of passages are meant to underscore both the journey of the soul and the sacredness of the space c) Fluting of columns evokes interplay between stone and organic materials d) Both ziggurats and pyramids are interested in a cosmic alliance, the four corners are oriented towards four cardinal directions C. Old Kingdom 1. Great Pyramids of Gizeh (2,500 BCE) a) Built by middle class laborers b) Stones were moved by sleds through wet sand c) Designed to reach the sun d) Great Sphinx (1) Body of a lion, head of a pharaoh (2) Carved from single piece of bedrock (3) Out of proportion; elongated feet, small head (4) Built for Khafre’s pyramid 2. Khafre Enthroned, from Gizeh, Egypt (2,520 BCE) a) Bilaterally symmetrical, broken by small detail of hands (1) One hand is forceful, the other rests (2) Unchanging, stable, serenity (3) Headdress represents cobra, symbol of rulership and divine rebirth (snakes shed skin) (4) False beard of kingship (5) Horus embraces head, indicates protection (6) Symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt entwined on throne 3. Seated Scribe, from Saqqara, Egypt (2,500 BCE) a) Softer body, represents stereotype of occupation b) Hands are engaged with scroll, reveals occupation c) Emphasizes role in society d) Large ears and eyes, upright posture, alertness and attentiveness (1) Flattering and admiring representation 4. Diorite Menkaure and Queen, from Gizeh, Egypt (2,500 BCE) a) Built third Great Pyramid b) False beard and headdress indicate kingship c) Queen supports her king, her arms steady him d) Rigid frontal pose, one foot forward

e) Soft, youthful expressions; calmness, measured and controlled f) Idealized figure, beautiful musculature D. Middle Kingdom 1. Fragmentary Head of Senusret III (1,860 BCE) a) Creases of eyebrows, hooded eyes, and sagging of flesh represent concern and caring b) Different approach to representation of ruler, depicts awareness of political problems 2. Rock-Cut Tomb, Beni-Hasan, Egypt (1,950 BCE) a) Columns are implemented for their aesthetic value and familiarity even though the structure is self-supporting E. New Kingdom 1. Funerary Banquet, Tomb of Nebamun, from Thebes, Egypt (1,400 BCE) a) Maintenance of order b) Engagement in private conversation, intimation of movement, temporality (casual seated position, movement of hair) c) Fluid, relaxed; break with convention 2. Hatshepsut with Offering Jars, from Deir el-Bahri, Egypt (1,450 BCE) a) Kneeling posture; only done before a god (as a pharaoh), performs her pious duties b) Dressed as a ruler in masculine signs of authority c) Fit, trim, masculine body; body of the king d) Smooth, idealized face, round cheeks; standard conventions 3. Senmut with Princess Nefrua, from Thebes, Egypt (1,470 BCE) a) Block statue of Hatshepsut’s advisor b) Covered in hieroglyphs, represents a cloak c) Indicative of yoga posture, feet fully frontal and forward d) Fusion of abstract cubic form and acknowledgement of the body (1) Innovation for representing figures as enthroned that first appears in the Middle Kingdom e) Sense of protection and intimacy with the family of the pharaoh (1) Asserts Senmut’s power in his social position f) Hair of princess is pulled up; convention for representing children 4. Pylon temples: have successive entranceways leading to temple complex a) Gate marks movement from one social place to another; differing degrees of access that become increasingly restricted and intimate b) Temple of Amen-Re, Thebes, Egypt (13th century BCE) (1) Fusion of two gods (2) Self-sustaining, massive complex; priests, workers, food production (3) Priests served on behalf of the pharaoh; some became serious political rivals (4) Sacred lake refers to primeval flood of creation

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(5) Hypostyle: characterized by series of rows of columns supporting a roof (a) Lotus-decorated columns refer to sacredness of the fertile Nile landscape (b) Clerestory: architectural element that is found in upper portion of building, lets in light through windows to illuminate the central structure (6) Sunken relief carving: ideal for preservation, more efficient, retains perfect cylindrical profile of columns (uniformity) 5. Amarna Period a) Religious and political revolution under Akhenaten (monotheistic), resulting in change in location of capital b) Colossal Statue of Akhenaten, Temple of Aton, from Karnak, Egypt (1,350 BCE) (1) Androgynous figure; departure from representation of masculine authority, narrow hips, rounder waist, slightly protruding belly (a) Sun disc was understood to be androgynous (2) Crossed arms; posture of god Osiris, fusion of tradition (3) Elongated face, large eyes, sensual mouth; appears otherworldly and exceptional c) Bust of Nefertiti, Thutmose, from Amarna, Egypt (1,350 BCE) (1) One eye left unpainted; idea of activation, artist is in position of creator to endow the piece with life (2) Very lifelike, remarkably attentive study of structure of the face (3) Slightly exaggerated; neck is thin and long, praises female beauty (a) Calls attention to a flower on a thin stalk 6. First Millennium a) Statue of Mentuemhet, from Karnak, Egypt (650 BCE) (1) Reflects traditional representation (see Menkaure and Khamerernebty) Chapter 4, “The Prehistoric Aegean” A. Cycladic 1. Female Figurine, from Cyclades, Greece (2,500 BCE) a) Triangular/geometric form, simplification of anatomy b) Found in burial site c) Adorned to express value B. Minoan 1. Named after King Minos 2. Used both dry and wet fresco (more durable) 3. Palace of Knossos, Crete, Greece (1,700-1,400 BCE) a) Double-headed axe: symbol of justice

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b) Complex structure c) Less fortified, more accessible d) System of terracotta drainage pipes to accommodate damp environment e) Cushion capitals columns, tapered toward bottom f) Bull Leaping (Toreador Fresco) (1,400 BCE) (1) Severely damaged by exposure to sea air and earthquakes (2) Reddish brown figures are often used to represent men, white can indicate women, adolescents, or the dead (3) Possibility of single event represented by three different stages/people (4) Long legs, narrow waists, pronounced torsos, eyes shown frontally, pointed noses and chins (5) Interest in depicting motion and fluidity; curving lines C. Spring Fresco, from Thera, Greece (1,650 BCE) 1. Rhythmic curves 2. Earliest landscape image, focus on environment rather than human activity D. Mycenaean 1. Large, complex tombs filled with metal objects 2. Lion Gate, from Mycenae, Greece (1,300 BCE) a) Represents courage, bravery, strength, fortitude b) Relieving structure: approximate triangle above a lintel where masonry courses in a wall are corbelled over each other Chapter 5, “Ancient Greece” A. Melding of true history with mythology B. Geometric Period; characterized by kraters (1050-700 BCE) 1. Krater from Dipylon Cemetery, from Athens, Greece (740 BCE) a) Used as grave marker (not actually used for mixing of wine) b) Hollow to provide for drainage of water c) Depicts funeral scene d) Ritualized gestures represented grief C. Orientalizing 1. Black-Figure Amphora with Animal Friezes, from Corinth, Greece (600 BCE) a) Represents mythical creatures b) Striding forward in ranks c) Similar to Ishtar Gate D. Daedalic 1. Lady of Auxerre, from Crete, Greece (650 BCE) a) Concerned with geometric representation; face is an upside down triangle, enclosed by triangular hair (rectangular pattern), cylindrical body, square pattern on dress

b) Little interest in showing underlying structure of body E. Archaic Period; characterized by sculpture and vase painting, archaic smiles, articulation of ear, almond shaped eyes (700-480 BCE) 1. New York Kouros (600 BCE) a) Egyptian influence b) Grave marker, votif image c) Geometric incisions indicate anatomical form d) Convention of depicting hair e) Archaic smile: corners of mouth turn up ever so slightly, animates figure to give impression of life f) Hands are mostly cut away from body; liberation from stone block 2. Kouros, Anavysos (530 BCE) a) Softer “V” shape 3. Peplos Kore, Acropolis, from Athens, Greece (530 BCE) a) Cylindrical shape b) Still drapery c) Wears a peplos over a chiton d) Hips are slightly asymmetrical e) Slight indentation in dress indicates separation of legs f) Facial features of face encompass entire space of face; not all information is seen frontally 4. Chiton Kore, Acropolis, from Athens, Greece (520 BCE) a) Dress associated with Ionia b) Areas of fabric are pulled tight, some curves are shown (1) Sign of forward motion (equivalent to forward step of kouroi) c) Interest in pattern 5. Plan of a Greek Temple a) Doric style (triglyphs and metopes, simple capital, fluted capital, no base, small pediment sculptures) (1) Temple of Hera I, Olympia, Greece (550 BCE) (a) Row of columns down center (b) Massive columns, narrowly separated; anxiety about their function as supports (c) Longer than it is wide (2) Temple of Artemis, Corfu, Greece (600 BCE) (a) Symbol of Medusa; protective, sight is imbued with power b) Ionic style (frieze, scroll capital, base) (1) Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, Greece (530 BCE) (a) Gigantomachy: battle between Greeks and giants (b) Caryatid: sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head

c) Pronaos: inner area of the portico, situated between the portico's colonnade or walls and the entrance to the cella, or shrine d) Anta: posts or pillars on either side of a doorway or entrance of a Greek temple e) Cella: central area of temple where statue is placed 6. Achilles and Ajax Amphora, from Athens, Greece (525 BCE) a) Bilingual vase: black attic produced on one side, red attic on the other b) Red figure technique 7. Dying Warrior, Temple of Aphaia, from Aegina, Greece (490 BCE) a) Marble pediment statue b) Still holding shield, looking down, wounded in battle; doesn’t explicitly appear wounded, no explicit conveyance of suffering c) Stylized face; bulbous cheeks (“Santa style”) d) Wears the archaic smile; doesn’t attribute emotion to character, simply an artistic convention characteristic of the period F. Early Classical Period; bodies are starting to move, faces remain static 1. Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece (470 BCE) a) Thinner columns spaced more broadly b) Expanded pediment sculptures; figures maintained at uniform size, positioned to accommodate change in space, complexity of angles 2. Kritios Boy, from Athens, Greece (480 BCE) a) Contrapposto: bears weight on one side, asymmetrical hips, potential for movement (1) Slight tilt of head to balance weight shift b) Proportions reflect musculature underneath skin rather than features being inscribed on surface c) Softer “V” shape, more subtle curves d) Idealized youth with potential 3. Bronze Riace Warrior (450 BCE) a) Produced for export and purchase due to political and economic dominance of Greece b) Adult male in prime of physical fitness and thus in intellectual experience (in warfare, government, etc) c) Distinct break of bilateral symmetry due to contrapposto even down to disposition of arms, legs and base (due to use of bronze) d) Use of copper for nipples indicates relationship between naturalism and idealism e) Action of holding spear adds to naturalism 4. Bronze Zeus or Poseidon (450 BCE) a) Splaying of arms made possible by use of bronze b) Distinct break from strict depictions from either the front or the side

(1) Displays skillfulness of culture 5. Diskobolos, Myron (450 BCE) a) Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original (1) Conveniently located tree stump to support weight b) Clear geometric form c) Blank expression d) More complex action; desire to show the fit body performing physical feats (1) Torqued torso, engagement of abs and back muscles (2) One arm is fully extended, the other acts as a counterbalance 6. Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer), Polykleitos (440 BCE) a) Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original b) Ideal, physically fit male citizen (canon proportions) c) Contrapposto, specifically counterbalanced with “X” shape d) Head is turned slightly, off axis; ready to move in accordance with body; doesn’t make contact with viewer (1) Physical and emotional control, body and mind are in order (part of canon) e) Ideal of civic virtue, of athleticism f) Recognizable sense of the natural world at its most beautiful, without possibility of accident (perfect balance) g) Replacement of beaded hair design with flowing locks; shows transition toward motion and away from pattern G. Classical Period & The Parthenon (480-323 BCE) 1. Marked by defeat of Persians 2. Bust of Pericles, Kresilas a) Marble copy of the head of a bronze statue 3. Acropolis of Athens a) Impressive, monumental approach to accommodate masses of people and animals b) Parthenon (447-438 BCE) (1) Designed by two architects (2) Doric exterior, ionic interior (a) Two different regional variations; unification of Peloponnese and Asia Minor under Athenian dominance (b) Slight curves and angling of columns prevent illusion of warping; sturdy appearance (c) Figures in pediment are postured reasonably according to their position (rather than made smaller) (i) Cosmic order (3) Athena Parthenos

(a) Battle scenes (b) Forward knee evidenced by drapery folds; contrapposto pose (c) Ornate, gold chiton (d) Low relief frieze (4) Three Goddesses (Hestia, Dione, Aphrodite) (a) Damp fold drapery: style of carving meant to both create a challenge while also subverting it (i) Conceals and reveals the body (ii) Excuse for bizarre patterning that is made appealing (iii) Troughs and ridges, intervals between folds (regular/irregular) (5) Centauromachy (a) Complex, bizarre positions of battle display muscular prowess and artistic prowess; interlocking of legs (b) Rival as worthy rival; shows hardship of war to emphasize importance of success; response to desire to show physiological power of warfare (6) Peplos Scene (a) Mythical event from founding of Athens, or idealized ceremony of gift-giv...