NPB 101 - Lecture notes Test Notes PDF

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Midterm 1 Notes What are the 5 different levels of organization in multicellular organisms? 1. Cell 2. Tissue: many like types of cells 3. Organ: many tissues for a specific function 4. Organ System: Many organs working together 5. Organism: organ systems working together Levels of Organizations: Cell What are the cells 6 functions? 1. Obtain nutrients and oxygen 2. Exchange of materials 3. Intracellular transport 4. Metabolism (ATP) 5. Synthesis 6. Reproduction Tissue an aggregate of cells and extracellular material What are the four primary tissue types? 1. Muscle tissue 2. Nervous tissue 3. Epithelial tissue 4. Connective tissue What is the main function of muscle tissue? Contraction What are the three types of muscle tissue? 1. Skeletal 2. Cardiac 3. Smooth What is the main function of nervous tissue? Signals What are the two types of nervous tissue? 1. Central 2. Peripheral What is the main function of epithelial tissue? Exchange What are the two types of epithelial tissue and their functions/subcategories? 1. Epithelial Sheets: form boundaries 2. Glands: secretion

-exocrine (external secretion) -endocrine (internal secretion) What is the main function of connective tissue? Structural support Organ two or more primary tissues organized to perform a function Organ system Collection of organs that perform related functions essential to survival What are the 11 organ systems? 1. Circulatory System 2. Digestive System 3. Respiratory System 4. Urinary System 5. Skeletal System 6. Muscular System 7. Immune System 8. Integumentary System 9. Nervous System 10. Endocrine System 11. Reproductive System Organ System: Circulatory System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Heart, blood vessels, blood 2. Function: Transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, wastes, electrolytes, and hormones throughout the body Organ System: Digestive System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Mouth, pharynx , esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, salivary glands, pancreas, etc. 2. Functions: -Obtains nutrients, water, and electrolytes from the external environment and transfers them into the plasma -eliminates undigested food residues to the external environment Organ System: Respiratory System (1)Contains what organs?

(2)Function(s)? 1. Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs 2. Functions: -Obtains oxygen from and eliminates carbon dioxide to the external environment -helps regulate pH by adjusting the rate of removal of acid-forming carbon dioxide Organ System: Urinary System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra 2. Functions: -Important in regulating the volume, electrolyte composition, and pH of the internal environment -removes wastes and excess water, salt, acid, and other electrolytes from the plasma and eliminates them in the urine Organ System: Skeletal System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Bones, cartilage, joints 2. Functions: -Supports and protects body parts and allows body movement -calcium is stored in the bone Organ System: Muscular System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Skeletal muscles 2. Functions; -Moves the bones to which the skeletal muscles are attached -heat-generating muscle contractions are important in temperature regulation Organ System: Immune System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. White blood cells, bone marrow, thymus, tonsils, adenoids, lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, gut-associated lymph tissue, skin-associated lymph tissue 2. Functions:

-Defends against foreign invaders and cancer cells -Pave way for tissue repair Organ System: Integumentary System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Skin, hair, nails 2. Functions: -Serves as a protective barrier between the external environment and the remainder of the body -the sweat glands and adjustments in skin blood flow are important in temperature regulation Organ System: Nervous System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs 2. Functions: -Acts through electrical signals to control rapid responses of the body -responsible for higher functions including consciousness, memory, and creativity Organ System: Endocrine System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Hormone secreting tissues, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, endocrine pancreas, parathyroids, gonads, kidneys, intestine, heart, thymus, pineal, skin 2. Function: Acts by means of hormones secreted into the blood to control processes that require duration rather than speed, e.g. metabolic activities and water/electrolyte balance Organ System: Reproductive System (1)Contains what organs? (2)Function(s)? 1. Gender-based: -Male: Testes, penis, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, bulbourethreal glands -Female: Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, breasts 2. Function: Essential for perpetuation of the species Homeostasis

Dynamic maintenance of a stable internal (extracellular) environment within the organism -Essential the survival of each cell *requires continual exchange of materials b/w the intracellular and extracellular spaces -Each organ system contributes to counteracting changes of internal environment Difference between homeostasis of multicellular invertebrates vs. vertebrates While multicellular invertebrates have there cells close to the external environment (eg. ocean water) and can use diffusion, multicellular vertebrates gave their cells far from the environment Eight Factors that must be maintained in homeostatis 1. Concentration of nutrients -(circulatory, digestive, muscular, nervous, and endocrine systems) 2. Concentration of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide -(circulatory, respiratory, muscular, and nervous systems) 3. Concentration of waste products -(circulatory, digestive, urinary, muscular, nervous, and endocrine systems) 4. pH -(respiratory, urinary, and nervous systems) 5. Concentration of water and electrolytes -(circulatory, digestive, urinary, skeletal, muscular, integumentary, nervous, and endocrine systems) 6. Temperature -(muscular, integumentary, and nervous systems) 7. Volume and pressure -(circulatory, nervous, and endocrine systems) 8. Defense against forgein invaders -(immune system) What two control systems maintain homeostasis? 1. Intrinsic 2. Extrinsic Intrinsic control systems Local control systems built into an organ

-e.g. increased carbon dioxide production leads to relaxation of smooth muscle and dilation of blood vessels Extrinsic control systems External control systems outside of an organ permitting coordinated regulation of several organs Define Negative Feedback -Also, what are four related terms? 1. Change in a controlled variable triggers a response that opposes the change 2. Sensor, set point, integrator, effector Sensor Mechanism to detect the controlled variable Set point The desired value of the variable Integrator Compares the senor's input with the set point Effector Adjusts the value of the controlled variable Positive Feedback Loop Reinforces the change in a controlled variable -rarely occurs in physiology -E.g. makes hot things hotter and cool things cooler What are the 2 primary sensors/systems to maintain homeostasis? 1. Nervous System 2. Endocrine System Nissl stain stains RNA (ribosomes) Is the brain all one mass of tissue? No, it is like a quilt of different sheets as shown by different stainings Korbinian Brodmann 1868-1918 -Started differentiating parts of the brain -Compared brains of animals to humans and often times found conserved characteristics between then two *ex. area 17 (sight) in the brain both in eye and eye-less animals Luigi Galvani 1737-1798 Moving frogs legs with batteries Wilder Penfield

1891-1976 -Used Electrical stimulation of human brains while the patient wasawake and could tell him what they experienced -worked w/ epilepsy -different areas of the brains stimulate different pars of the body *Not new knowledge since ppl with head injuries were studied and showed similar things Six Major Regions/Lobes of the Brain See image 1. Frontal 2. Parietal 3. Occipital 4. Temporal 5. Brainstem 6. Cerebellum (primitive part of the brain) -What are the Four Human Primary Sensory Areas? -Why are these deemed "primary"? 1. Primary Motor Cortex 2. Primary Somatosensory Cortex 3. Primary Auditory Cortex 4. Primary Visual Cortex -These are the first places in the brain in which perception occurs, underneath the cerebral cortex What are the Four Visual Cortical Areas and their general functions, if listed? 1. Eye Movement (motor) 2. Complex spatial processing (motion, attention) 3. Primary Visual Cortex 4. Complex Feature Processing (Faces, places, memory) What are the Four Auditory Cortical Areas and their general functions, if listed? 1. Speech Production 2. Primary Auditory Cortex 3. Auditory Spatial Processing (localization, attention) 4. Complex Auditory Processing (Speech, language, "cocktail party") What are the Eight Motor and Somatosensory Areas and their general functions, if listed? 1. Speech Production 2. Pre-motor cortex 3. Eye movements

4. Reaching movements 5. Supplementary Motor Cortex 6. Primary Motor Cortex 7. Primary Somatosensory Cortex 8. Complex touch sensations (coordination) What is the main breakdown of the nervous system? 1. Central Nervous System -Brain -Spinal Cord 2. Peripheral Nervous System -Somatic (motor and touch) -Autonomic (largely not under conscious control, deals w/ keeping homeostasis) ~Sympathetic ~Parasympathetic Somatic Peripheral Nerves 1. Spinal Nerves- come from spinal cord 2. Cranial nerves-come from the brain -ex. funny bone=ulnar nerve Planes of section Three ways to crossection the body 1.Horizontal 2. Frontal or Coronal 3. Saggital Directions to reference parts of the body: Dorsal and Ventral Dorsal: Up toward head Ventral: Down toward feet Directions to reference parts of the body: Caudal and Rostral Rostral: Toward front (face side) Caudal: Toward back (away from face) Directions to reference parts of the body: Medial Midline from head to toe Directions to reference parts of the body: Lateral To the left and right of the medial position (midline) The Meninges The outter laters that cover the brain and spinal cord: -Skin of scalp

-Periosteum -Bone of skull -Dura Mater (periosteal and meningeal) -Arachnoid mater -Pia mater The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) A series of epithelial cells keeping the blood and brain separate -protects viruses from reaching the brain -Keeps out hydrophillic things Where to inject drugs to a patient if you want to minimize the amount of drugs given? In the epidural space of the vertebrae -epidural injections put the drug in the place where the drugs are intended to cause effect, allowing for less drugs and therefore less side effects The 2 Nervous System Cells 1. Neurons 2. Glial cells Glial cells sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Three Main Parts of a Neuron -Dendrite -Synapse -Axon What type of stain is used on neurons? Golgi Stain Plasma Membrane Thin membrane enclosing each cell which is composed of a semi-permeable lipid bilayer, in part due to the membrane proteins & carbohydrates which allow transport Phospholipid Bilayer -Makes up the Plasma membrane -two layers of fats ~exterior is the hydrophillic, polar head ~interior is the hydrophobic, nonpolar tails Membrane Proteins -channels and carriers to transport molecules and ions -Receptors to signal responses

-Form adhesion and junctions Nucleus Membrane bound organelle containing the genetic material: 1. DNA 2. RNA -mRNA -rRNA -tRNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Genetic material: -Blueprint for protein synthesis -Replicate during cell division Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Carries out protein synthesis -mRNA -rRNA -tRNA Messenger RNA (mRNA) DNA's genetic code is transferred to mRNA and the message leaves the nucleus Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Participates in reading the message and translates it into the appropriate protein sequence Transfer RNA Transfers the appropriate amino acids from the cytoplasm to their designed site in the protein being constructed Cytoplasm Portion of the cell's interior not occupied by the nucleus Organelles -Membrane-enclosed structures that carry out specific functions -Six main types of organelles similar in all cells: ER, Golgi complex, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Mitochondria, Vaults Organelle: Endoplasmic Reticulum -A continuous fluid filled network of membranous tubules -Two kinds: -Rough ER -Smooth ER Rough ER

ER membrane covered with ribosomes which carry out protein synthesis Smooth ER ER membrane lacking ribosomes Organelle: Golgi Complex Processes raw material into finished products and directs products to their destination via exocytosis Exocytosis Fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane to secrete contents Organelle: Lysosomes Membrane-enclosed sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes -Material to be digested by the lysosomes enters the cell via endocytosis Three forms of Endocytosis 1. Pinocytosis 2. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis 3. Phagocytosis Pinocytosis "Cell Drinking" Invagination of the membrane to form a pouch and internalize extracellular fluid Receptor-mediated Endocytosis Only lets in external material if it locks into a specialized receptor site Phagocytosis -"Cell Eating" -Invagination of the plasma membrane to form a large vesicle and internalize large particles such as bacteria or tissue debris Organelle: Perioxisomes Membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative enzymes (catalase) which act to remove hydrogen from toxic molecules Catalase Antiodant enzyme converting H2O2 into H2O an O2 Organelle: Mitochondria Responsible for aerobic metabolism and the production of cellular energy (ATP) Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Molecules serving as energy source for cellular functions Three Ways to make ATP 1. Glycolysis 2. Citric Acid Cycle 3. Electron Transport

Glycolysis Cytosolic enzymatic reactions responsible for anaerobic metabolism It involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid, with a net yield of two molecules of ATP for glucose molecule processed Citric Acid Cycle Mitochondrial enzymatic reactions converting Acetyl-CoA to 1-ATP, 2-CO2, 3-NADH, and 1-FADH2 NADH Derivative of B-vitamin niacin acts as high energy electron donor FADH2 Derivative of B-vitamin riboflavin acts as high energy electron donor Electron transport Mitochondrial enzymatic reactions utilizing NADH and FADH2 to synthesize ATP (32) What are the five main points of mitochondria and their importance? 1. The mitochondria make ATP 2. The mitochondria need glucose to make ATP 3. ATP is the energy source for the cell 4. Multicellular organisms (like humans) need to have mitochondria to make ATP 5. Multicellular organisms (like humans) need to get glucose to their cells, which is not easy since most of them are nowhere near the environment (like with bacteria) The brain need a ridiculous amount of energy to work. Therefore it needs a lot of mitochondria, and a lot of glucose. Organelle: Vaults Proeinaceous organelles transporting molecules within the cytoplasm -may serve to transport mRNA or the ribosomal units from the nucleus to the cytoplasmic ribosomes Cytosol and its three functions Semi-liquid portion of the cytoplasm Functions: -Enzymatic regulation of intermediate metabolism -Ribosomal protein synthesis -Storage of fat and glycogen Cytoskeleton and its three major components A protein network for structural support, transport, and cellular movement

Three major components: 1. Microtubules 2. Microfilament 3. Intermediate filaments Cytoskeleton: Microtubules What is their function and their composition? Function: maintain cell shape and control axonal transport, movement of cilia, flagella, and chromosomes Composition: Microtubules are long, hollow tubes formed by slightly different variant of small, globular tubulin molecules Axonal Transport: -Deals with which of the three types of cytoskeleton? -Define -Health concerns with it? - Microtubules are used for axonal transport -It is the bidirectional movement of large molecules and vesicles along the axon of neurons -Health concerns: a virus can get past the Blood-Brain Barrier (ex. rabies gets into axon terminal and the virus replicates Directions of "flow" in axon transport and their definitions *Anterograde: away from the cell body -Fast anterograde: 50 - 400mm/day Retrograde: toward the cell body -Fast retrograde: 200 - 500 mm/day Slow transport: 1 - 8 mm/day Very Slow Transport: 0.1 - 1 mm/day (just a bit faster than diffusion) Microtubules: Cilia Motile, hair-like protrusions on cell surface (respiratory pathway, oviduct, brain ventricles) Microtubules: Flagella Motile appendage enabling cellular movement (sperm) Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments Function in cellular contraction and mechanical support Cytoskeleton: Intermediate filament

Provide structural support for components subject to mechanical stress What are the three ions we care about when thinking about electrophysiology and concentration grad.? Why? 1. Sodium 2. Potassium 3. Chlorine These three ions have the greatest energy requirementa Voltage an electromotive force or potential difference expressed in volts Charge flow of electrical charge carriers What sign (+/-) defines inside to outside current? Positive sign (+) What sign (+/-) defines outside to inside current? Negative sign (-) What are the two forces that act in an ion? 1. The Electrical Force 2. The Chemical Force Electrical Force The physics concept that opposite charges attract and similar charge repels Chemical Force Things, like ions, move from high to low concentration Equilibrium Potential -Define -Applies to what? -What equation is used to find the equilibrium potential? -The potential (voltage) across the membrane where these two forces equal each other -Only applies to looking at one particular type of ion (ex. sodium), not a mixture. -The Nerst Equation The Nerst Equation and define the terms The Nerst equation is a mathematical description of the two forces acting on ions with respect to how they will cross the plasma membrane (if possible) Equation, written 2 ways: Equillibrium potential=(1/z)x(T)x(constants) ([ion]o/[ion]i) V=(RT/zF)xln([ion]o/[ion]i)

R: the gas constant z: the charge of the ion (ex. K=+1) F: the Faraday constant T: the Temperature (the higher T is, the farther from zero is the equilibrium potential) [ion]: the concentration of the ion [ion]out: the concentration of the ion outside the cell [ion]in: the concentration of the ion inside the cell What is the sign or answer of log(>1)? Positive What is the sign or answer of log(1)? Zero What is the sign or answer of log(1)= positive number Ion: Potassium -Does it have a higher concentration inside or outside the cell? -What is the net directional flow of potassium, in or out of the cell? -What sign is the equilibrium potential? 1. Potassium has a higher concentration within the cell 2. Its net flow is outward because the inside of the cell is more negative and potassium has a positive charge. However, unlike sodium, there is more potassium inside the cell,

so the chemical force causes it to be push out of the cell. Eventually the two forces cancel out at a dynamic equilibrium. 3. Equilibrium potetial is a negative number for potassium, since the outside concentration is smaller than the inside concentration: log (small/big) = log(...