Nutrition Anthropology PDF

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NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY Module outcomes By the end of this module, the learner should be able to: 1. Describe the role of nutritional anthropology in nutrition and dietetics 2. Explain how human behavior influence food acquisition 3. The social factors that determine the pattern of nutrition and disease 4. Describe socio-cultural process that affect nutrition and dietetics Module Units and Time Allocation Unit

Unit Name

Time(Hours)

Sociology of food and Nutrition Food Taboos and Cultural Notions Personhood Human behavior and Food acquisition Social cultural processes and nutrition Physiological adaptation Social factors and nutritional related diseases Nutrition education Gerontology Speech pathology chart reading Emerging issues and trends Total

Theory 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 26

No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Practical

Total

Module content 1: Sociology of food and Nutrition 1.1: Definition of terms Nutritional Anthropology: Refers to the study of food and nutrition from evolutionary, behavioural, cultural and social perspectives, and how these interact to influence the nutritional status of an individual, community and population at large. Food: Refers to edible substance from animal or plant substance consisting of nutritive components such as [mention all the nutrients] which when ingested and assimilated through digestion release energy, causes growth, maintenance, promote health body and sustains life.

Food systems: It refers to all activities related to the production, distribution and consumption of food that affect human nutrition and health.

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For example factors affecting food production: land use and tenure, soil management, crop breeding and selection, crop management, livestock breeding and management and harvesting. Food distribution involves a series of post-harvest activities including the processing, transportation, storage, packaging and marketing of food as well as activities related to household purchasing power, traditions of food use (including child feeding practices), food exchanges and gift giving and public food distribution. Activities related to food utilization and consumption include those involved in the preparation, processing and cooking of food at both the home and community levels, as well as household decision-making regarding food, household food distribution practices, cultural and individual food choices and access to health care, sanitation and knowledge. Among the components of the food system, e.g. food processing, communication and education, there is substantial overlap and inter-linkage. For example, household decision-making behaviour with regard to food is influenced by nutrition knowledge and by cultural practices with regard to food allocation within the household as well as by purchasing power and market prices.

Nutritional anthropologists tend to apply methods from both biological and social sciences to develop theories and testing hypotheses. They also use humanistic scholars to gain insights into the cultural and historical aspects of food. The field can therefore, be characterized as a biocultural discipline, which stresses on the importance of integrating multiple perspectives on human behavior and experience in explaining nutrition. Nutritional anthropologist tend to undertake the following researches i. Socio-cultural processes and nutrition; ii. Social epidemiology of nutrition; iii.Cultural and ideational systems and nutrition; iv. Physiological adaptation, population genetics, and nutrition; v. Applied research for nutrition programs.

1.2: Evolutionary aspects of nutrition

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Tracing back in history, Nutrition has come a long way, over many years, from a point of not getting attention to a point it has started to be considered important because of its potential to determine person’s good health and prevent, and health chronic diseases thus reduce premature death. About 400 BC, Hippocrates, a Greek scientist gave food a critical role when he proclaimed that “let food be thy medicine, and medicine be thy food”. It has taken over 2400 years for people to take serious that famous quote, and the journey of nutrition evolution is worthy examination. If individuals, communities, and the population at large can appreciate how we have come to our current understanding of the importance of food, then we could gain a better under of how fully continue to embrace this journey of exploration, education and health improvement. Early Farming Influences History states that, about 10, 000 years ago, farming started to take place in form of hunting and gathering as a primary source of food for most people. The planting of crops made farmer to start growing varieties of crops as well as experimenting interbreeding to come up with more productive hybrids. Immediately, farmers started to develop hybrids that were sweeter in order to suit human taste and preferences as attributed to the negative effect of foods becoming nutrient deficient. The growing of one crop per area contributed to gradual reduction in nutrient levels in the soil; hence crop rotation and better fertilization were introduced to address the need. The introduction of chemicals such as pesticides and synthetic fertilizer enhance production. There was also introduction of corporate farming which also enhanced the nutritional value of food

The United States Department of Agriculture researched on the deterioration of plant nutrition over the past 25 to 40 years and established the following decline in essential nutrients in the food we consume: i.

Some nutrient deficiencies due to nutritionally depleted soil:

ii.

Calcium in broccoli is down 50 percent (1975 to 2001)

iii.

Iron in watercress is down 88 percent (1975 to 2001)

iv.

Vitamin C in cauliflower is down 40 percent (1979 to 2001)

v.

Vitamin C in sweet peppers is down 30 percent (1963 to 2001)

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Other factors contributing to nutrient depletion Over the past 100 plus years, there have been many changes in farming which have been attributed to loss of nutrients. They include: the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, genetic modification, and storage of foods for later use, shipping foods long distances and not replacing all of the nutrients depleted with each crop. People like purchasing food that is of lower price not considering that such food has depleted nutritional values but because it’s cheap people don’t care and it’s not very beneficial in the long term. Societal Influences On Our Food and Its Nutritional Value With steady progress of science in exploring the nutrients present in foods, and how they influence our health, individuals, communities and populations have been transforming their daily eating behaviors because of several influencing factors. Researches show that the nutrient density of our food has decline over the past 100 years. Most of the foods we eat today has 50% fewer nutrients compared to the food consumed by our grandparents. There are several other factors that have defined our eating behavior and nutritional intake over the years. They include: i.

Urbanization: The rapid growth of cities and suburbs after the Second World War has consumed valuable farmland, which was primary factor in the reduction of locally grown produce. The rapid population growth has resulted in expansion of farm, and more mechanized as farmers struggle to produce more food to meet the need of the growing population.

ii.

Wars: The several wars that occurred during 20th century and each has a unique implication on our food and the nutritional intake. For example rationing was a common characteristic of the wars. Victory gardens helped people to produce their own homegrown foods, and they also practiced canning of fruits and vegetables.

iii.

Synthetic Fertilizers: The use of synthetic fertilizers particularly nitrogen enhance crop production, however these chemical were destroying beneficial organisms, causing soil erosion, pollution of water supply, killing of sea life and cancer in humans. The chemical were also going into the atmosphere leading to greenhouse gases, and respiratory problems in humans

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iv.

The Depression: The economic depression of the 1930s created economic hardship for millions of people making them to the consumption of a less healthy diet. There was hunger, malnutrition and poor health.

v.

Refrigeration: The introduction of refrigerators and freezer allowed people to buy a lot of food at one time and encourage food companies to make frozen products. The practice has both positive and negative impacts. On the positive side, frozen fruits and vegetables are nutritious because they are frozen immediately after being packed. On the negative side, frozen food may be left in the refrigerator for too long and lose much of its nutrients.

vi.

Food Processing: The tendency of food companies to process food in order to extend shelf life thus increase profits Food companies used processing to extend shelf life in order to increase profits. This leads to omega-3 oils being taken out of foods because they oxidize. Grains are ground and bleached, which can remove up to 80 percent of some nutrients. Canning requires foods to be heated to destroy germs and bacteria, but it also causes the loss of nutrients.18

vii.

Agribusiness—Mega farms owned by large corporations have produced larger quantities of inexpensive foods. This helps families with lower incomes. However, the profit motive leads to the higher use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, early picking before crop maturity, storage for long periods of time, long shipping distances, over processing and the overall reduction of nutrients.19

viii.

Preservatives—Agribusiness and food processing also led to the development of synthetic food preservatives. These chemicals extend shelf life, but also often deplete nutrient content and introduce toxins that the human body does not like. Many of these preservatives have been shown to cause cancer and other health problems.20

ix.

Artificial Coloring and Flavoring—In the 1950s and 60s, food companies began to increase the use of artificial coloring and flavoring. Making food more appealing visually, and in terms of taste, was important in an increasingly competitive marketplace. However, many of these ingredients come from chemicals that are toxic and potentially dangerous to our health. Government regulation of these additives has been virtually non-existent and many of these ingredients have now been directly connected to various diseases.22

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x.

Women at Work—World War II saw a substantial increase of women in the workplace where they made all of the materials for war. They continued to work throughout the second half of the 20th century, which dramatically changed the way many families ate.  Processed food made shopping and meal preparation easier.  Microwave ovens greatly reduced cooking time.  Fast food outlets made cooking unnecessary. While these so-called “improvements” saved time and money, they also caused our foods to be less nutritious, leading to a major increase in chronic disease over the past 50 to 60 years.

xi.

Government Influence—our governments have tried to address the emerging nutrition crisis in our country, but their efforts have fallen woefully short of what was needed. Here are some examples:



School lunch program—This was a good idea, but ended up being too much of a dumping ground for meat, dairy, sugar and grain products, which have actually made our children less healthy.27



Irradiation and Genetic Manipulation—These programs were intended to increase the supply of food, as well as reduce cost. They did both, but in the process, also made our food less healthy, leading to serious health consequences. (Foods treated in this way are not well absorbed.)28



Fortification Programs—The government began to recognize how many nutrients were being lost in processing, shipping long distances, picking too early and adding dangerous chemicals. The fortification of food was mandated in some cases and done voluntarily by food companies in other cases. This is probably one of the better things done by government and businesses. As usual, it is probably too little, too late, and not being done as well as it could be. The RDA (Recommended Daily Allowances) are too low to be really effective in the prevention of most chronic diseases.29

Some Significant Scientific Breakthroughs

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The following scientific breakthroughs are merely a sampling of the many events that have shaped nutritional history over the past 100 plus years. They are presented here to illustrate how each discovery helped to pave the way for others, which allows us to enjoy a much greater understanding about how food impacts our health and our longevity. Around 1900—Dr. W. O. Atwater and his colleagues identified the energy yield from carbohydrates, protein and fats (4,4 and 9 Kcal per gram), which is still used today. 1906—Frederick Hopkins identified “accessory food factors” essential to health. He shared a Nobel Prize for this discovery of what would later (1912) be named vitamins by Casimir Frank. 1913—Elmer McCollum discovered the first specific vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A and watersoluble vitamin E. 1914—1920—Dr. Joseph Goldberger identified niacin as the nutritional deficiency responsible for pellagra, instead of an infection, which was thought to be the cause. 1920—Alfred Harper suggests that disease might be caused by nutritional deficiencies, as well as outside invaders. 1927—Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized vitamin D for which he won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928.35 1929—Dr. Christian Eijkman identified thiamine deficiency as the cause of beriberi, for which he won a Nobel Prize.36 1949—Drs. Wilfred and Evan Shute begin to use vitamin E to treat burns and diabetic gangrene. Eventually, they also used vitamin E to treat 30,000 patients, successfully, who had heart disease.39 1949—Linus Pauling co-publishes “Sickle Cell Anemia, A Molecular Disease,” which was the first time a disease was understood at the molecular level. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 for his work.40 2006—Dr. David Eddy releases his report on the efficacy of conventional medical treatments. His findings reported in a Business Week article entitled “Medical Guesswork” reveal that conventional medicine does not have good scientific evidence for 75–80 percent of what they do.54 2009—Mark Hyman, M.D. testifies before the U.S. Senate hearing on the Take Back Your Health Act and declares, “You will not solve the current healthcare crisis if you just try to do the wrong things better.”55

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2010—The Institute of Medicine reports in the Wall Street Journal article that a holistic approach to healthcare that uses the best of conventional medicine, along with alternative therapies, such as meditation, yoga, acupuncture and herbal medicines, has been scientifically documented to be medically, as well as cost, effective.56 2013—In the British medical journal Lancet Oncology, a large study found that diet (plantbased), yoga, meditation and lifestyle changes were able to stop or reverse diseases, such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes, heart disease and prostate cancer.57

1.3: Behavioural aspect of nutrition The food we eat influences how we feel. Food is supposed to make us feel good as it tastes great and it has nutrients that nourish our bodies. If you consume inadequate food, or eat too much your health as well as your quality of life could be affected. Such an effect could be a result of the negative feelings towards food. When individuals learn how to make healthier and mindful choices, they may be able to control compulsive eating, binging thus avoid weight gain. By people monitoring their appetite, it might enable them to gain a feeling of calm, high energy levels and even alertness from the foods they eat. Research demonstrates that overall, there are many benefits of changing to healthy eating habits such as: i.

An increase in energy level and alertness

ii.

A more positive relationship with food

iii.

Improved health

iv.

Easier movement, and

v.

Improved body image.

Despite the fact that it’s the intention of everyone to eat healthier, such can be a challenging task. There are various factors that influence our eating behaviors. What factors influence people’s eating behaviors Mention and explain 8 determination of food choice (8 marks) The major contributing factor behind eating is hunger but what people choose to eat is not determined solely by physiological or nutritional needs. There are some other factors that

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influence food choice includes/ Scholars tend to believe that there are many factors that can influence our feeling about food and our eating behaviors. For example: i.

Biological determinants such as hunger, appetite, and taste

ii.

Economic determinants such as cost, income, availability

iii.

Physical determinants such as access, education, skills (e.g. cooking) and time

iv.

Social determinants such as culture, family, peers and meal patterns

v.

Psychological determinants such as mood, stress and guilt

vi.

Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about food From other scholar

i.

Family

ii.

Individual

iii.

Economic status

iv.

Psychological

v.

Cultural

vi.

Evolutionary

vii.

Social The complexity of food choice is obvious from the list above, which is in itself not

exhaustive. Food choice factors tend to vary according to life stage and the power of one factor will vary from one individual or group of people to the next. Therefore, only one type of intervention to modify food choice behavior might not suit all population groups. Instead, , interventions need to be directed towards different groups of the population with consideration to the various factors influencing their decisions on food choice.

1.

Biological determinants of food choice

HUNGER AND SATIETY (Satiety: How long it takes after a meal before you start to feel hungry again) Our physiological needs provide the basic determinants of food choice. Humans need energy and nutrients in order to survive and will respond to the feelings of hunger and satiety (satisfaction of appetite, state of no hunger between two eating occasions). The central nervous system is involved in controlling the balance between hunger, appetite stimulation and food intake.

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The macro-nutrients i.e. carbohydrates, proteins and fats generate satiety signals of varying strength. The balance of evidence suggests that fat has the lowest satiating power, carbohydrates have an intermediate effect and protein has been found to be the most satiating (Stubbs et al. 1996). (Evidence: the available body of facts and information indicating whether a believe is valid, Carbohydrates: components of food containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The term carbohydrate includes simple sugars, monosaccharide, and disaccharide, oligosaccharide [containing several monosaccharide units] and polysaccharides. Starch and simple sugars are the preferred source of carbohydrates. Indigestible polysaccharides are the main components of dietary fibres. The energy density of...