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CMN 102: Empirical Methods in Communication

Spring Quarter 2019 Dr. Robert A. Bell Department of Communication University of California, Davis

Table of Contents Nature of Inquiry .............................................................................................................. 3 Causation ...................................................................................................................... 12 Research Design ........................................................................................................... 19 Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement ............................................ 31 Sampling ....................................................................................................................... 72 Experimental Methods................................................................................................... 87 The Questionnaire In Survey Research ........................................................................ 96 Survey Research ......................................................................................................... 112 Qualitative Field Research .......................................................................................... 134 Content Analysis ......................................................................................................... 141 Evaluation Research/Quasi-Experimental Design ....................................................... 153

2

NATURE OF INQUIRY I.

Why Do Research? A.

B.

C.

Limitations of Common Sense.

1.

Much of What We Know To Be True Isn’t.

2.

Individualistic Nature of “Common” Sense.

How Real is Reality?

1.

Experiential Reality: Knowledge Based on Direct Experience.

2.

Agreement Reality: Knowledge Based On Social Consensus.

a.

Tradition.

b.

Authority.

Errors and Biases In Casual Human Inquiry.

1.

Inaccurate Observations.

2.

Overgeneralization. (See handout on “replication as a guard against overgeneralization,” page 7).

3.

Selective Observation: “I’ll See It When I Believe It.”

3

II.

4.

Ex Post Facto Hypothesizing (Made-Up Information).

5.

Ego-Involvement in Understanding.

6.

Premature Closure of Inquiry.

7.

Mystification.

Theory: The Foundation of Social Science. A.

B.

C.

Definition: A theory is a conceptual representation or explanation of a phenomenon.

1.

All Theories Are Abstractions.

2.

Theories Are Inherently Partial.

3.

Theories Are Constructions.

Theory as Explanation of Regularities in Human Symbolic Behavior.

1.

The Charge of Triviality.

2.

Exceptions Do Not Deny The Rule.

A Variable Language For Theory Construction.

1.

“Variable”: A Feature of a Class Of Objects Which Can Vary (i.e., Which Is Variable).

4

2.

D.

“Attributes”: The Qualities Which Compose a Variable. (Alternatively, the Values That a Variable Can Assume.)

The Traditional (Deductive) Model of Scientific Method.

1.

2.

Starting Point: Phenomenon of Interest.

a.

Casual Observation.

b.

Theory.

c.

Competing Theories.

d.

Problem In Need Of An Answer.

Step 2: Theory Construction.

a.

Concepts.

b.

Theoretical Statements.

i.

Axioms.

ii.

Propositions.

iii.

Hypotheses. (See Example On Page 8).

3.

Step 3: Operationalization of a Theory’s Constructs To Create Variables.

4.

Step 4: Observation (Data Collection and Hypothesis Testing).

5

5.

III.

IV.

Summary: Wallace’s Model of Science.

Inductive Theory Construction. A.

Grounded Theory: Inducing Theory From Data.

B.

Inductive Theory and Field Research.

Some Characteristics of Good Theory. A.

B.

Three Primary Characteristics of Good Theory.

1.

Generality.

2.

Accuracy.

3.

Parsimony (Simplicity).

The Rub: Tradeoffs Among Generality, Accuracy, and Parsimony. (See Handout On Page 11.)

6

One Guard Against Overgeneralization is Replication Below is a typology of replication based on four kinds of similarity between the baseline study and the replicative study. * Replications differ along four dimensions, producing 16 types of replication, each with its own advantages. The four replication dimensions are as follows: 0F

➢

TIME: Same Versus Different Time Period.

➢

PLACE: Same Versus Different Location.

➢

RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS: Same Versus Different People.

➢

METHOD: Same Versus Different Research Procedures.

Time Same (Concurrent) Place:

Different (Iterative)

Same Place

Different Place

Same Place

Different Place

Methods

RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Same

Same People

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Different People

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Same People

(I)

(j)

(k)

(l)

(m)

(n)

(o)

(p)

Different

Different People

*

Adapted From: Howard M. Bahr, Theodore Caplow, and Bruce A. Chadwick. (1983). Middletown III: Problems of replication, longitudinal measurement, and triangulation. Annual Review of Sociology , 9, 243-264.

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Uncertainty Reduction Theory * 1F

Axioms 1.

Given the high level of uncertainty present at the onset of the entry phase [of a relationship], as the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship will decrease. As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication will increase.

2.

As nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels will decrease in an initial interaction situation. In addition, decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal affiliative expressiveness.

3.

High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information seeking behavior. As uncertainty levels decline, information seeking behavior decreases.

4.

High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decreases in the intimacy level of communication content. Low levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy.

5.

High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity. Low levels of uncertainty produce low reciprocity rates.

6.

Similarities between persons reduce uncertainty, while dissimilarities produce increases in uncertainty.

7.

Increases in uncertainty level produce decreases in liking. Decreases in uncertainty level produce increases in liking.

Propositions 1.

Amount of verbal communication and nonverbal affiliative expressiveness are positively related. [Note how this proposition has been logically deduced from Axioms 1 and 2. If Axioms 1 and 2 are correct, the proposition must also be true. Attempt to identify the axioms from which the remaining propositions have been derived.]

2.

Amount of communication and information seeking behavior are inversely related. [Deduced from Axioms 1 and 3.]

3.

Amount of communication and intimacy level of communication are positively related. [Deduced from Axioms 1 and 4.]

4.

Amount of communication and reciprocity rate are inversely related. [Deduced from Axioms 1 and 5.]

5.

Amount of communication and liking are positively related.

*

Source: C.R. Berger & R.J. Calabrese. (1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112.

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6.

Amount of communication and similarity are positively related.

7.

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and intimacy level of communication content are positively related.

8.

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and information seeking are inversely related.

9.

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and reciprocity rate are inversely related.

10.

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and liking are positively related.

11.

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and similarity are positively related.

12.

Intimacy level of communication content and information seeking are inversely related.

13.

Intimacy level of communication content and reciprocity rate are inversely related.

14.

Intimacy level of communication content and liking are positively related.

15.

Intimacy level of communication content and similarity are positively related.

16.

Information seeking and reciprocity rate are positively related.

17.

Information seeking and liking are negatively related.

18.

Information seeking and similarity are negative related.

19.

Reciprocity rate and liking are negatively related.

20.

Reciprocity rate and similarity are negatively related.

21.

Similarity and liking are positively related.

9

Theoretical Concepts are “Operationalized” To Create Variables Directions. Describe a procedure for operationalizing each of the following constructs. Concept

Operationalization

Intelligence

Research participant’s score on a specified IQ test, administered in a standardized way.

Respondent Sex

Respondent’s self-report of being either a male or a female, as indicated with a checkmark in one of two boxes.

Attentiveness Satisfaction with One’s Physician’s Communication Behavior Persuasive Message Comprehension Network Density Popularity Family Income Response Latency Physical Attractiveness

10

Tradeoffs In Theorizing

Two O’clock Theory Is General and Accurate, But Not Simple. (Many Concepts Are Needed To Insure Accuracy Across a Variety of Contexts. Generalized Accuracy is Obtained By Sacrificing Parsimony.)

Six O’clock Theory is Simple and Accurate, But Not General. (A Theory Can Be Both Simple and Accurate Only if it Applies to a Narrow Range of Situations. Thus, Generalizeability Must Be Sacrificed.)

Ten O’clock Theory is General and Simple, But Not Accurate. (A Theory Can Be General and Simple Only By Excluding The Many Variables Which Allow For Accuracy Across a Variety of Settings.)

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CAUSATION I.

Causality and Explanation.

II.

Determinism. A.

Deterministic Explanation.

B.

Objection: Causality Versus Free Will.

C.

Weak Determinism: Probabilistic Causal Model.

III.

Nomothetic and Idiographic Explanation. (See handout on page 13.)

IV.

Criteria For Causality. A.

Temporal Order Rule: Cause Must Precede Effect.

B.

Correlation: The Two Variables Must Be Empirically Related.

C.

1.

What Different Correlations Look Like (See handout on page 15.)

2.

A Word on Interchangeable Indexes.

Absence of Third Variable. (See exercise on page 17.)

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Two Approaches To Communication Research * 2F

Social Definition Approach (Idiographic) Related Labels Ontology (Study Of The Nature Of Existence)

Interpretivism, Interactionism, Ethnography, Cultural Studies

Realism, Variable-Analytic, NeoPositivism, Positivism

Social Reality is constructed through interaction. Social actors negotiate the meanings of actions and situations.

The things researchers study exist and act independently of them and their activities.

Social reality is not a “thing” to be interpreted; it is those interpretations. The basis of behavior is the social actors’ interpretations of the conditions in which they find themselves.

The social world is an objective (real) structure of relations which is not accessible to direct observation. These very real processes generate events, only some of which are observable.

Experience is a process of interpretation rather than direct perception of the world.

Epistemology (Study of the Basis of Human Knowledge)

Social Facts Approach (Nomothetic)

Knowledge is derived from (a) everyday meanings and interpretations through the description of these meanings and interpretations (from natives’ points of view) and from (b) translating these meanings into theoretical constructs. Such constructs are generated from everyday social constructs (i.e., everyday language) so that the integrity of the phenomenon can be retained.

*

• Empirical world: that part of reality that can be observed. • Actual world: the empirical world plus real but unobservable social processes. Knowledge is generated by building models to explain observable phenomena in terms of the underlying structures and mechanisms which constitute reality. These models consist of law-like statements about the tendencies of things. The assumption is made that if these models can explain regularities in the empirical world, they may be useful models of the real (i.e., of reality). There is no way to verify whether or not a model of reality is “true.”

Adapted From Norman W.H. Blaikie (1991). A critique of the use of triangulation in social research. Quality and Quantity, 25, 115-136.

13

Social Definition Approach

Social Facts Approach

Data

Rule-guided behavior and the intentions and motives which shape these behaviors; people’s own interpretations of their actions, the actions of others, and social situations.

Surface features (observable aspects) of the social world, as represented by our variables.

Explanations/ Theory

Descriptions cast in culturally appropriate terms.

Theories are descriptions of the social structural relations that underlie reality.

Description of cultural rules and norms which constitute the meaningfulness of interaction.

Validity

Agreement among participants in a social system (including the investigator and the “natives”) that an account of their world is acceptable.

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If the models constructed to explain observable features of the social world work, they are considered to be potentially valid accounts of reality.

Visualizing Different Correlation Values Range The correlation coefficient ranges from +1.0 to -1.0. A correlation with the absolute value of 1.0 is called a perfect correlation. When two variables have a correlation of 1.0 or -1.0, this means that a research participant’s value on one of the variables can be perfectly predicted (i.e., predicted without error) based on knowledge of his/her score on the other variable. The sign of r tells us if high scores on one variable are associated with high scores (positive sign) or low scores (negative sign) on the second variable. A correlation of -1.0 is just as large and informative as a correlation of +1.0. We never get perfect correlations in the social sciences. If we did obtain such a correlation, a scattergram of the relationship might look something like this:

Zero Correlation When two variables have absolutely no relationship to each other, the correlation is r = .00. In this instance, knowledge of a research participant’s score on one variable does not improve in any way an investigator’s ability to predict that person’s score on the second variable. Below is a scattergram of a bivariate distribution for which r = .00.

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Intermediate Correlational Values In most instances, we will obtain correlations that have an absolute value somewhere between 0 and 1.0. For example, this is what a correlation with an absolute value of .60 might look like:

16

Correlation Interpretation Case 1 An investigator has administered a questionnaire to 1000 males which included measures of (1) frequency of pornographic viewership and (2) sexual objectification of females. He finds a correlation of r = .78 between exposure to pornography and the sexual objectification measure. Our investigator concludes that pornographic viewing leads men to think of women as sexual objects. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.

Case 2 An investigator has found in a study of 250 children that those kids who watch Sesame Street on a regular basis have a better command of written English than do children who do not watch Sesame Street. She concludes that Sesame Street effectively teaches reading skills to children. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.

Case 3 An investigator finds through her analysis of crime records that violent nighttime crimes are less likely to occur when there is a full moon than when the moon is not bright or when the night is cloudy. Our investigator concludes that a full moon has a sedating effect on potential criminals. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.

Case 4 An investigator has measured the marijuana use of 1000 UCD students. He finds that the more marijuana students smoke, the poorer they perform in school. He concludes that marijuana smoking lowers student performance. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.

Case 5 An investigator has found that people who watch a lot of television tend to think of the world as a scary and dangerous place. She concludes that television viewing leads people to exaggerate the seriousness of crime in our society. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.

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Case 6 An investigator observes that there is a strong positive correlation between ownership of an iPad and ownership of an expensive performance car; stated differently, people tend to own both or neither. He concludes that ownership of an expensive performance car leads people to purchase an iPad. Offer another interpretation of this relationship.

Case 7 A finance professor finds that individuals who watch the TV show Wall Street Review are much wealthier than individuals who do not watch this show. He concludes that watching Wall Street Review makes people wealthy. Offer two other interpretations of th...