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Fidel Arnecillo
Descartes, Kant, Papineau, Jackson, Locke Notes...

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Descartes, Kant, Papineau, Jackson, Locke Notes

Descartes’ argument for the existence of the body o Can doubt the body  Descartes' Argument for Existence of Body (as an external and extended thing) P1. In sensible perception of ideas of external things, there are two faculties that are involved: passive faculty of sensing [P hereafter] and active faculty of producing or bringing about ideas [A hereafter] P2. If A resides in me, then I voluntarily produce or bring about the ideas of external things P3. Ideas of external things are involuntarily produced (We do not create the objects/ideas in front of us) P4. So, A does not reside in me P5. It must reside in a substance that is different from me P6. This other substance, in which A resides, is either a body, or God, or other creature nobler than a body P7. If ideas of external things are from a source other than bodies or corporeal things, the God is a deceiver P8. God is not a deceiver (from claim that God is a perfect creator and deception is imperfect-if we are being deceived, then God does not exist; God cannot have created a world where we are controlled by the evil genius-rules out God cause he will be deceiving us and rules out evil genius-therefore, comes from body) P9. So, the source of such ideas must be bodies or corporeal things (C ) Therefore, bodies, as extended and external things, must exist. •

Descartes on the independence of the body from the mind o There is a mind and body. They causally act with each other even though they are separate from each other o The brain has the pineal gland. We have two eyes, but one see single objects. There must be a part in the brain where all of our experiences become unified. The mind causally interacts with body through the brain. o Thinking of driving too fast triggers gland to press on break o This explanation violates the First Law of Thermodynamics (energy cannot be created nor destroyed) - Descartes' error o If mind interacts with brain, energy must be created because something nonmaterial must have energy to interact with material. o Cartesian Dualism - stepping on nail (phys.) causes pain (mind). Then pain causes person to say "ouch" (phys.).

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Descartes on the perception of the external world and deceitful schemes o The Evil Genius Argument - is it conceivable that there is an evil being controlling our minds and making us have false math beliefs; It is possible that we are living in a simulated world

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Dreaming Argument - if dreams can fool you, how do you know you are dreaming right now?

• Descartes’ explanation for mind-body interaction and the problems with such an explanation

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Descartes on incorrigible knowledge and method of doubt o Method of Doubt - doubt everything you can possibly doubt until you reach the point where you cannot doubt anymore (opposite of Anselm's seek to understand) o Descartes starts with doubt (modern thinking). Anselm starts with belief. o Method of doubt o If religion is doubted, miracles and more do not exist o Beliefs about sciences come from senses o Senses can also be doubted because it can deceive us o So we can doubt knowledge drawn from sciences and the beliefs that follow o Belief on math: If we cannot prove the evil genius, we can cross out math Descartes’ argument for the existence of the mind o The one thing we cannot doubt is "I think therefore I am"-"As long as I am thinking, I exist" o Cannot doubt own existence; I must exist as the one dreaming or the one being controlled o "I"/self exists (one thing in the world that must exist) o For mid-evil thinkers, God cannot be doubted. Descartes turned it to "I" cannot be doubted, which led to study of the mind (psychology) o I=? o "I" is a being with a body o A being with natural appetites o A being with powerful self-movement o A being with feelings o A being with thoughts  If you doubt the body, the others do not exist EXCEPT for thoughts, because doubting is a form of thinking o I = thinking thing o Descartes assumes matter cannot think o The "I" must be doing the thinking, because the BODY cannot think o Descartes believes the first 4 are shared with animals, therefore, they cannot think 

Descartes' Argument for the Existence of the Mind P1. Through the method of doubt, it is conclusively proved that the "I" exists P2. The "I" is the thinking thing P3. The mind, as a substance, has thought as its principal attribute

P4. The mind, as the nonphysical substance, must be the one that thinks P5. The mind must then be the thinking thing (C ) Therefore, the mind exists • Descartes on reason as sufficient guide for truth and the proof for incorrigible (not able to be correct/proved) knowledge o

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Descartes on the corrigibility of scientific and mathematical knowledge o Evil genius argument o Conflict between common sense and science o Common Sense: Earth is flat 1. The body is a physical thing (Idealists reject this and believe everything that exists is a construct of the mind) 2. The mind is a non-physical thing (materialist will reject this) 3. The mind and the body are causally interacting with one another ((PD rejects this) o Science: Earth is round 1. Nonphysical things cannot causally interact with physical things (CD rejects this)

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Papineau’s causal argument for materialism o Materialism - only body exists; everything that exists must be reducible to something that is physical Materialism (favored by philosophers)  There is no mind  Everything that exists must be reducible to something physical  The mind is really nothing but the brain  Ex: When brain gets damaged, personality changes (Is mind actually the brain?)      o

Belief can be reduced to brain, genes, and body Thoughts can be reduced to the brain Pain can be reduced to C-fiber firing Personality can be reduced to genes, body Temperament can be reduced

Papineau's Causal Argument For Materialism P1. Conscious mental occurrences have physical effects o Itch -> scratch o Physical effects have mental causes

If you reject premise 1, you will end up with theory that is counterintuitive. If 1 is false, it is not the itch that causes scratch. P2. All physical effects are purely caused by purely physical prior histories o Must be something in brain that causes you to say "ouch", but there must be another activity that causes the feeling o Series of physical causes and effects o Physical effects also have physical causes o If reject this, you reject premises of physics. P3. Physical effects of conscious causes are NOT always overdetermined by distinct causes o Cant prove the mind exists o Occam's Razoe - when you encounter two competing theories, you favor the one with the least amount of assumptions o If you can explain why a person is a certain way by looking at brain, then why should you suppose there is a mind? C. Therefore, mental causes are identified to physical causes o

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Papineau’s abstract claim Abstract Claim: All things that exist must be reducible to something physical. o "All" makes claim abstract. ALL things are assumed and may not all be physical.  Things can be reduced to something physical  There is no reason for us to think this claim is false because of above  Knows what physically happens in brain when thinking of colors or feelings  How are you doing this rather than why Papineau’s general response to any objection that denies any of his premises If you challenge any of his premises, you will end up with theory that is worse than Theory of Materialism (not scientific and counterintuitive)

Jackson’s possible objection to Papineau’s abstract claim Objection to materialism Qualia - peculiarly subjective felt qualities of experience o Ex: strong taste of horseradish, itchiness, pains of jealousy , seeing a color in different shades Describing these terms are relative and different for each person Probe audience, reader Thought experiment - 50 tomatoes on table. All look the same. Tom says he can separate Red 1 Tomato and Red 2 Tomato. Blindfold him to put mark on one and change order. He can fix the order several times. He is actually seeing two different colors. We still do not see what he sees. o Mary is brilliant scientist who knows all colors and eye effects when seeing color. Mary was born and raised in black and white room. Books are about colors. She is let out and sees a red rose. Color cannot be described and Mary will gain new

knowledge about red. Subjective felt quality of seeing color cannot be reduced to something physical. Not everything can be reduced to something physical. o Record bat's brain, but we still do not know the bat's experience. Cannot be reduced •

Jackson’s knowledge argument

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Jackson’s responses to objections to epiphenomenalism Epiphenomenal Qualia (singular form: quale) - things that we cannot reduce to something physical

Kant’s critiques of rationalism and empiricism Science is a study of the world as It appears to humans Critical of rationalism and imperialism Said the problem of rationalism leads to dogmatism o View that you can have knowledge independent of sources - rationalism o Claims are un-confirmable Thinks empiricism leads to skepticism o Emperialism - knowledge comes from sources o Possibility of knowledge should be denied o If you believe all knowledge is derived from senses, there is some denial of knowledge since senses can be doubtable Kant’s epistemological theory that attempts to reconcile rationalism and empiricism Kant says there are objects/events in the world we can conceive. (I only know the table as it appears to me) We perceive the world through our senses, which provide us with representations/raw materials of sense impressions o My sense of sight provides me with color of table. Sense of touch provides representation of its smoothness and hardness. Human Cognition There must be a faculty of knowledge, which allows me to see the world in a distinctively human way He focuses on the psychology of the object Our senses provide content, but mind provides form A priori categories (independent of senses) o Category of Substance - mind can recognize objects separately from each other (object on table is separate from table) o Category of Temporality - time; we observe the world as having a sequence of events o Category of Causation - We naturally know about 'cause and effect'

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Human cognition if bi-product of what we sensibly conceive and what we understand (perception and understanding) Critical Idealism - Kant's view

Locke’s response to a rationalist argument Believes all knowledge come from senses and there are no innate ideas Rationalist Argument (Not John Locke; argument he responded to) A. There are certain principles that are universally agreed upon by all humans. a. Ex: morals, math Therefore. They must have been constant impressions that everyone receives at birth.  Locke would have responded by saying o "Whatsoever is , is." - Locke uses this as example, not his claim o "It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be." o According to Locke, idiots and tribal people may not recognize these principles o A rationalist will say if people learn the use of reason, they will recognize these as true Locke’s case for the sensible or experiential ground of the use of reason Textbook: Page 211 paragraph 15 Objects, events --> sense dates, ideas --> mind --> naming, memory --> abstraction of ideas, learning use of general terms --> use of reason  I see three brown objects, then have idea of color brown  See three rectangular objects, then have idea of rectangularity The very use of reason pre-proposes use of senses, therefore, all knowledge must be derived from senses (first two arrows, three items) There cannot be knowledge that is independent from senses...