Phy Sci 5 - Midterm Review - Summary PDF

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EXAM 1 Syllabus Breakdown Chapter 1: Cardiovascular Diseases Chapter 2: Carbohydrates

Chapter 3: Proteins Chapter 5: Digestive System

Chapter 1 Cardiovascular Diseases Leading cause of death in the US is cardiovascular diseases 1900s leading causes of death were infectious diseases Plague, Chlorea and Typhoid Factors which related to diseases improper food contaminated water bad sanitation Infectious diseases decreased in the 1900s due to better environmental conditions sanitation improvements better water treatment Science after the Progress focused on improved medical techniques, faster diagnosis and better treatment Insulin discovered in 1922 Antibiotics discovered in 1940s Leading cause of death in Modern times are chronic diseases Diseases of the heart cancer stroke Chronic Diseases caused 2/3 of death in 1990s lead to morbidity and limited functionality Modern Children Diseases Diabetes and Hypertension caused by inactivity and obesity Chronic diseases years of unhealthy lifestyle choices

Risk Factors of Cardiovascular diseases Tabacco most preventable risk factor Carcinogens cause increase in plaque build up in blood vessels cause Hypertension and atherosclerosis

Lipids

Chapter 2: Carbohydrates Day 1: 6-16 Carbohydrates are essential because they must be obtained through diet to fulfill basic functions composition- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen glucose- carbohydrates in the blood glycogen- carbs in liver and muscles carbohydrates are primary source of fuel for body glycogen- carbs in liver and muscle increase in cell activity causes glycogen to break down into glucose for energy nervous systems favor glucose for energy course, red blood cells depend on glucose for energy as only source 1g Carbohydrate = 4 Calories Where do carbohydrates come from source- plants through photosynthesis created in the leaves through structure of cells Carbohydrates in food Monosaccharides- glucose, fructose, galactose may exist in food as disaccahride or polysaccahride glucose- disaccahride- lactose (milk), polysaccahride- sucrose, fructose Monosaccharides Glucose- usually found in the circulatory stored as glycogen in tissues rarely found as monosaccahride in food Galactose- found in foods as disaccarhides Disaccahrides disaccahrides- lactose, maltose, sucrose sucrose composition- one glucose and one fructose Lactose- One glucose and one galactose

maltose- two glucose molecules Polysaccarhides Polysaccharide- long chain of 20+ carbohydrates polysaccharides- starch, glycogen, fiber starch- found in plant products grains, legumes, tubers starch may exist as straight chains of amylose branched chains of amylopectin structure of starches determines where they get digested amylose- longer to be digested amlyopectin- faster to digest due to working with enzymes glycogenmost common form of sugar stored in the body glycogen is highly branched largest source is through meat consumption Fiber- indigestible carbohydrate polymer of glucose indigestible due to lack of enzymes able to breakdown fiber composition endosperm- contains the starch germ- contains fiber bran- contains fiber Types of fiber fiber classification functional- shown to have health benefits dietary- found in food total- sum of functional and dietary Why are starches digestible but fiber is not? starch has alpha particles and fiber has beta particles starch shape- helical cellulose shape- linear Fiber classificationSoluble- slows absorption of glucose and binds to cholesterol Insoluble- no effect on cardiovascular system Sugar Alcohol

Sugar Alcohol- product of monosaccharides and disaccharides Most common sugar alcohols glycerol, sorbitol, mannitol and xylitol glycerol- part of the tryglycerides trglercerides are the most common fat that exist in the body tryglerceride composition- 1glycerol 3 fatty acids triglyceride consumption tryglyceride < fatty acid < glycerol< resynthesization of fatty acids Carbohydrates in food Sugars are referred to as simple sugars- monosaccahride and disaccharide starches are complex carbohydrates

How is glucose regulated in our body glucose- sole function is to provide energy to our body endocrine system- system which released two hormones insulin and glucagon to regulase blood-glucose level insulin- lower the glucose level glucagon- rises the glucose level homestasis- system which insulin and glucagon regulate blood-glucose level Normal bloodsugar= 70-100 mg/dl Insulin lowers glucose levels by increase the uptake of glucose to liver and muscles to begin glycogen synthesis Glucagon increase glucose levels by breaking down the glycogen to increase glucose in plasma Insulin beta cell hormone released from the pancreas hyperglecimc Glucagon alpha cell hormone released from the pancreas hypoglecemi Normal bloodsugar cycle takes 2 hours antagonistic hormones- insulin and glucagon

How does insulin regulate sugar level Adenine Triphosphate- glucose converted to energy molecules Insulin increases uptake of glucose to liver and muscles by increasing amount of GLUTs available

GLUT- Protein transporters for glucose due to glucose not be able to cross cell membrane Brain Cells are the only cells in the body which don't require insulin for glucose uptake Glycemic Index foods are classified based on their glycemic response Fructose causes a slower rise of insulin than glucose glycemic index- measures the rise of glucose from a certain food compared to a 50g pure glucose test variable of 2-3 hour digestion high glycemic index- food quick digested and broken down into glucose low glycemic index- foods slowly digested and broken down into glucose glycemic index tells us how fast sugar in food is broken down into glucose glycemic load- takes into account quantity of carbohydrates per serving Carbohydrates and metabolism carbohydrate digestion begins in mouth and ends in cells all carbohydrates will be broken down into monosaccharides then further into glucose potentially stored in tissue as glycogen or converted to ATP for energy exercise promotes storage of glycogen in muscles livers strores 90g Glycogen muscles store 400g Glycogen

Carbohydrate Digestion Process 1. mouth- mechanical digestion begins in mouth through of salivary gland enzymes called amylase 1. amylase- enzymes used to break down long chain of carbohydrates into smaller chain 2. bolus goes through pharnyx and esophogus 3. stomach- No carbohydrate digestion occurs in the stomach 4. Small intestine- pancreatic amylase break down small chain of carbohydrates into disaccharides 5. Lining of small intestine releases enzymes disaccharidases 1. disaccharidases- sucrase, lactase, maltase 6. Each disaccharidases will break down the corresponding disaccharide 7. Glucose is then absorbed into the blood 8. Glucose Plasma levels increase as sugar continues to absorb sugar 9. beta cells in pancrease realize increase in plasma levels and release endocrine system hormone insulin 10. insulin increases the uptake of glucose into the muscle, liver, and adipose tissue 11. glucose converted to glycogen in cells through glycogen synthase

1. main enzyme in the pancreas 2. 12. glycogen stored until energy needed thus glycogen converted to Adenine Triphosphate 13. Excess glucose enters the adipose tissue where it is converted to fatty acids 1. fatty acids are long chains of hydrocarbons 14. fatty acids are further stored as triglycerides 1. lipogenesis- conversion of glycogen into fatty acid and stored as triglycerides fatty acids are synthesized by Acetyl-CoA Acetyl-CoA is a product of glycolsysis Lipogenesis glucose is taken to the adipose tissue glucose undergoes glycolysis where Acetyl-Coa is formed acetyl-CoA converted to fatty acid fatty acids group in chain of 3 to a glycerol molecule forming tryglyceride tryglycerides are major form of fat storage

Glucogenesis proteins are broken down into amino acids amino acids generated are converted to aAcetyl-Coa 18-20 amino acids can be used to make glucose Lactate produced during anaerobic exercise lactate transfered from muscles to blood lactate taken to liver where convereted into Acetyl-CoA

Chapter 3: Proteins most diverse macromolecules proteins when digested are broken down into amino acids, then reconfigured in the cells as proteins Amino acid structurization is not random, but determined by DNA What are the monomers of Proteins? amino acids are the building blocks of proteins amino acid composition central carbon atom amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, R group (variable)

20 total amino acids What determines protein function? number and type of amino acids What element does proteins have which Carbohydrates and Lipids do not? Nitrogen some contain sulfur

Types of Amino Acids essential amino acids- amino acids our body cannot synthesize and rely on diet to obtain nonessential amino acids- amino acids our body can synthesize transamination- chemical reaction which converts essential amino acid to nonessentia

Function of Proteins proteins are crucial for cell survival and organ system efficiency Functions of Proteins as Enzymes Cells depend on the interaction of substrates to have chemical reactions, proteins as enzymes increase the rate at which substrates interact and force the substrates to interact well Function of Proteins as Hormones in Signaling Hormones may be composed of both proteins and amino acids Proteins/Hormones created in the cell are stored in vesicles which release the hormone when needed Function of Proteins to Maintain Fluid Balance Water makes up 60-70% of the body Interstitial fluid- water which surrounds the outside of cells Proteins and electrolytes are control cellular water movements Too much water? Cell expansion and burst of the cell Too little water? Cell Shrinks TOO LITTLE PROTEIN? Low amounts of electrolytes and proteins cause water in cells to move outside the cell and join the interstitial fluid further causing swelling this is Edema

Function of Proteins in pH balance Due to metabolic activity occurring in cells, cells produce acidic and basic molecules Acidic and basic molecules are transported by the blood but secreted by the Kidneys Acidosis- too much acid in the body resulting in respiratory and digestive issues Alkalosis- too much base in the body Proteins act as buffers which do not reach with the acids/bases but due to amino and carboxyl group being charged, buffers act as molecules to bind acids and bases Function of Proteins as Protective Molecules Pathogens- alien microorganisms and chemicals which are harmful to the body Function of immune system- to protect body from harmful or foreign bodies immune system cells produce and release proteins called antibodies Antibodes antibodies circulate through the blood stream and notify other immune systems cells when foreign organism is detected and antibodies kill the intruder Function of Proteins in Transport Proteins as transporters act to transport chemicals and nutrients through circulation proteins can transport chemicals and nutrients across cells or move molecules within cells Insoluble substances depend on transport proteins called albumin and lipoproteins to transport cells by binding to the substance Cell membranes have limited permeability thus charged particles such as glucose can’t cross lipid section of membrane and depend on transport proteins Motor Proteins- small proteins which transport molecules within the cell Function of Proteins as Cell Growth, Maintenance and Repair Mitosis- Process of Cell division Rate of Cell division depends on the activity of the cell whole process is highly regulated by proteins Function of Proteins in Movement Muscles categories Voluntary Muscles- Muscles of the skeletal systems and muscles which lie around our extremities and bottom of lungs allow all physical activity and breathing Involuntary Muscles-

Cardiac- Muscle of the heart, ensure constant contraction and blood circulation Smooth- Muscle which lie along organs of the respiratory, digestive system and blood vessels Contraction of all Muscles allowed by proteins Two major proteins found in Muscles? Actin Myosin

Proteins in the diet Complete Protein- Contains all 20 Amino Acids Incomplete Protein- Does not contain all 20 amino acids Average Protein intake? 10-35% of total caloric intake Best animal source of protein? Meat and milk Best plant source of protein? Soybeans What protein is essential for Insulin composition? Lecuine Protein Digestion Mouth- None Pharynx- None Esophagus- None Stomach Pepsinogen- Inactive enzyme secreted by stomach lining cells to break down dietary proteins Parietal Cells- Release HCl which is needed to activate the Pepsinogen Pepsin- The activated version of Pepsinogen which break down the long Protein chains into small Peptide Chains Chyme- Food broken down into Bolus, Bolus broken down into this. Weird liquid paste food state Small Intestine Enterokinase- Small Intestinal enzyme which activates pancreatic enzyme Pancreatic Enzymes break down Chyme into Dipeptides Dipeptides- Small Peptide chains which contain only two amino acids Small intestinal enzyme called Aminopeptidases breaks down dipeptides into Amino Acids Amino Acids absorbed into the blood stream Protein Synthesis Gene Expression- process in which proteins are synthesized in DNA gene- serves as a template for a specific protein

Ribosome- located in the cell cytoplasm, here is where proteins are made mRNA- intermediary copy of DNA which binds to Ribosomes transcription- process of copying DNA onto mRNA translation- Process of protein synthesis Protein disassociates from Ribosome and undergoes further modifications to become functional proteins may or may not be broken down depending if they have lost their need or function proteins may be broken down into amino acids then re-used to synthesize other proteins mRNA contains specific sequences of nucleotides called Codons Codon composed of the nucleotides codes for one amino acid tRNA- Transfer RNA reads the codons from the mRNA and places the correct amino acid per codon Protein Synthesis Structures Primary Structure- Initial sequence pf which Amino Acids covalently bond together Secondary Structure- When different amino acids causes parts of the sequence to interact and form twist or folds twist- alpha helices folds- beta pleated sheets Tertiary structure- when differing amino acids continue to interact forming a 3D shape this shape is what determines protein functionality Quaternary structure- continued amino acid interaction Can Proteins be used for energy? Deamination- Process in which amino group is removed from amino acid nitrogen is sent to the liver producing Urea Urea sent to Kidneys and expelled in urine Gluconeogenesis- amino acids converted to glucose

Digestive System Functions of digestive system? Digestion Absorption Digestion- chemical process of braking food down into molecules

Absorption- Taking molecules produced by digestion and putting them through the circulatory system delivering to cell to ensure cell development and organ system efficiency Ailmentary Canal- Digestive track beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus Main 8 Organs of digestive system Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum, Anus Accessory Organs- Remaining 4 organs not included in digestive organ categorization Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Salivary Glands Total of all organs measure 8 meters in height Long single organ- small intestine GI Tract- Digestive Tube Smooth muscles- Involuntary muscles which surround digestive organs smooth muscles create peristalsis which ensures forward movement of food through organs Functions of the Digestive Organs: Mouth Mechanical Digestion- Process of breaking down food into smaller molecules by the teeth Chemical Digestion- Salivary enzymes break down the chemical bonds which hold food molecules together, creating smaller pieces Function of the Digestive Organs: Salivary Glands Three locations Under jaw Under tongue By the ears Saliva Function- bind food molecules together while moistening the food for esophagus activates taste buds on tongue Serous cells produce Salivary Amylase which is used in Carbohydrate digestion Function of the digestive organ: Esophagus Esophagus holds no chemical digestion Smooth muscles ring shaped at top and bottom to ensure peristalsis Sphincter at Pharynx-esophagus point Gastric Sphincter- esophagus-stomach point Secrets mucus to lubricate lining 25cm in length Function of the Digestive organ: Stomach

Shape of the stomach is J shaped Stomach lies in upper left abdominal cavity Holds 1L and function is to ensure food storage Mucus lining made up of there cells Mucosal- secrete enzymes which act as buffers Parietal- Secret HCl Chief- Secrete Pepsinogen Pepsinogen is activated by HCl and creates Pepsin which is a stomach enzyme used to break down protein Smooth muscles which divides small intestine and stomach Stomach produces 2-3L gastric juice Bolus- the outcome of mechanical digestion and the form of food which is delivered to the stomach Chyme- Product of bolus and stomach HCl, paste like fluid Rate of chyme deposit depends on type of food Deondeum- First part of the small intestine where chemical digestion and absorption of carbohydrates occur Function of the Digestive Organs: Pancreas Pancreas is an accessory organ located in the C-Shape crevice of the small intestine Has two functions endocrine- release or hormones insulin and glucagon to maintain blood sugar exocrine- release of Proletyic, Amylase and Lipase Digestive Enzymes responsible for secretion of major enzymes for macromolecules Proletyic- Protein digestion Pancreatic Amylase- Carbohydrate digestion Pancreatic Lipase- Lipid Digestion Also secretes Bicarbonate to neutralize the acid Function of the Digestive Organs: Liver and Gallbladder Liver secretes bile which is one of the most important enzymes needed for digestion Bile composition water electrolytes cholesterol bile acid bilirubin Bile Acid and Pancreatic Lipase work together through process of Emulsification Emulsification- Process of Pancreatic Lipase and Bile Acid working together to break down fat globules into smaller fat globlues

This is important because it increases surface area of fat to interact with digestive enzyme and makes lipase more efficient Function of the Digestive Organs: Small Intestine Broken into three parts Deondenum- Last part of digestion first of absorption Jejenum- Middle Ilium- Connects to Large Intestine Lining of small intestine releases Disaccharidases which function is to break down corresponding disaccharides into glucose for Carbohydrate Digestion Also secretes enzyme Enterokensis which is enzyme essential in activating pancreatic enzymes used for protein digestion Breaks down Chyme into Dipeptides Functions of the Digestive Organs: Large Intestine Secretes only Mucus Mucus needed for lubrication of intestinal lining Cyme when passed to Large Intestine consist sold of water and electrolytes Intestinal Flora- Bacteria which resides in large intestine is used to break down fiber into poop and take sugar produced from vibe into vitamin B12 and K for body nourishment xzzzxcs...