Psychology midterm 1 review PDF

Title Psychology midterm 1 review
Author Linda Wang
Course Introduction to Psychology
Institution Baruch College CUNY
Pages 19
File Size 216.4 KB
File Type PDF
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MIDTERM STUDY SHEET CHAPTER 1: PAGES 1- 6 --- CHAPTER 2: PAGES 7-9 --- CHAPTER 3: PAGES 10-15 – CHAPTER 5: 16-19 Psychology: the scientific study of thought and behavior  Root word psyche comes from the Greek for “mind” Pop Psychology: aka popular psychology can be found in homes, on radio talk shows, internet news site, and in TV news reports … methods of scientific and clinical psychologists are different from these “pop” psychologists, who sometimes draw from an unreliable body of knowledge called common sense Subdisciplines of Psychology  Cognitive Psychology: the study of how we perceive information, how we learn and remember, how we acquire and use language, and how we solve problems … ex: researcher wants to know how people visualize objects in their minds  Aka experimental psychologists: those who research on cognition and learning … conduct lab experiments for research questions  Developmental Psychology: explores how thought and behavior change and show stability across the life span  Developmental perspective allows us to appreciate that organisms grow + change  How do our reasoning skills or emotional skills change as we grow? Does age bring wisdom? Parent-infant bonding affect adult relationships? .... etc.  Behavioral Neuroscience: studies the links among brain, mind, and behavior … study the brain functions involved in learning, emotions, social behaviors, mental illness, etc.  Biological Psychology: old term which includes research on all areas of connection between bodily systems and chemicals and their relationship to behavior and thought  Ex: effects of stress on hormones and behavior  Both study the structure and functions of the living brain by using noninvasive advanced imaging techniques and electrical recordings  Personality Psychology: what makes people unique … consistencies in people’s behavior across time and situations  Ex: whether our personal traits and dispositions change or stay the same from birth – adulthood/death … if being friendly affect health? Career choice? Relationships?  Social Psychology: considers how the real or imagines presence of others influences thought, feeling, and behavior  Ex: how does the presence of other people change an individual’s thoughts, feelings, etc.? why are we attracted to certain types of people? Racism + prejudice  Clinical Psychology: diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health  Largest subdiscipline in psychology  1940s: main approach to train in psych is scientist practitioner model … people in PhD in clinical psych should be/trained in both therapists and researchers  Clinical psychologists: conduct research + teach  Work in universities, medical settings, private practice  Counseling Psychology: related field … work with less severe psych disorders than clinical psychologists  Treat + assess relatively healthy people and assist them in career interest, etc. likely to be trained in school education rather than psych department  Health Psychology: examines role of psychological factors in physical health and illness Page 1 of 19

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 Ex: how stress is linked to illnesses and immune functions … role of social factors in how people interact with health care professionals  May work in disease prevention, treatment, rehab… involves clinical practice Educational Psychology: study how students learn, the effectiveness of certain teach techniques, the dynamics of school populations, and psych of teaching  Educational psychologists usually are academics, theorists, or researchers  School psychology: related field … practiced by counselors in school settings … approx. 9% of doctorates were in school psych in 2005-06 Industrial/Organization(I/O) Psychology: applied science (understanding real world and not lab behavior) … fastest growing subdisciplines  Industrial: matching employees to their jobs and uses psychological principles and methods to select employees and evaluate job performance … aka personnel psych  Organization: aims to make workers more productive and satisfied by considering how much work environments and management styles influence work worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity Sports Psychology examines the psychological factors that might affect performance and participation in sports and exercise  Ex: improving athletic performance through techniques like relaxation + visualization Forensic Psychology: blend of psych, law, and criminal justice  Forensic psychologists make legal evaluations of person’s mental competency to stand trial, state of mind of a defendant at the time of a crime, allegations of child abuse … etc.

The Origins of Psychology  Prehistoric Views – Stone Age  Shamans: treated the “possessed” by driving our demons with rituals and “cure” mental illnesses … exorcisms, incantations, and prayers  Trephination: was used by shamans … drilling a small hole (usually less than an inch in diameter) in a person’s skull … may have been an attempt to heal a brain injury or ‘release’ spirits and demons … bones show that large % of people survived these surgeries because there is bone growth after procedure  Ancient Views – Around 2600 BCE  China, Egyptians and Greeks sought natural explanations for psych disorders and not supernatural  Egyptians use narcotics to treat pain  Greek physician Hippocrates was first to write about man suffering from phobia of heights … acrophobia  Medieval to Early Modern Views – 400-1400 CE  Europe in this era and Renaissance thought people were possessed by demons. Spirits, and the devil (hallucinations or ‘melancholia’ aka depression)  catholic church investigated witchcraft and campaign to dissent from established church dogma  Church held trials to see if witchcraft is good vs bad  Probed by metal and if no pain = protected by devil … float test drowns = innocent  Asylums: facilities for treating mentally ill in Europe during middle ages – 19 century Page 2 of 19

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ST. Mary of Bethlehem in London (Bedlam as called by Shakespeare) … henry VIII designated it as hospital for the insane but rather than treating them … it was more removing them society and storing them in a house  Conditions were very poor… windowless, filthy rooms, chained to walls  Moral Treatment: reform movements to provide a relaxing place where patients would be treated with dignity and care Modern Views – last decades of the 1800s  Emil Kraepelin (1880s – 1890s): German who collected data on the various kinds of psych disorders and started classifying and diagnosing them  Popularized the term dementia praecox (premature dementia) which later turns to schizophrenia, thought disorder known previously as ‘split mind’  First to distinguished thought disorders (schizophrenia) from mood disorders of melancholia (depression) and maniac depression (bipolar disorder)  Sigmund Freud (around 20th century): developed psychoanalysis (clinical approach) to treating psych disorders  Psychoanalysis: assumes the unconscious mind is the most powerful force behind thought and behavior and that dreams have meaning and are the most direct route to the unconscious mind  Assumes our experiences during childhood are a powerful force in the development of our adult personality  Assumes that people use psych defenses to protect themselves against threatening impulses, thoughts, feelings, and fantasies  Assumes the unconscious blocking, or repression, of disturbing thoughts and impulses – especially sexual and aggressive – is at the heart of maladaptive behavior  Mid-20th century: psychotherapy, drug therapy, and modern criteria emerged for diagnosing mental disorders  Ex: cognitive-behavioral: common form of modern therapy focuses on changing a person’s maladaptive thought and behavior patterns by discussing and rewarding more appropriate ways to thinking and behaving  When diagnosing, psychologists use Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) … current 5th edition so DSM-5  DSM includes more than 250 psych disorders

John Locke (17th century)  Empiricism: the view that all knowledge and thoughts come from experience and observations  Mind begins as a tabula rasa, or blank slate, onto which experience writes the contents of the mind  Mind receives what our sensory organs take from the outside world  Unlike philosophy, psych collects data to test their ideas … researchers examine and test human sensations and perception using scientific methods … psych is modern empirical science tests predictions about behavior with systematic observations and gathered data Psychophysics: the psychology of physical sensations

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Wanted to understand how people process and experience the sensations of sound, light, smell, taste, and touch Gustav Fechner (1801-1889): realized that one can study the psychological and physical world… coined the term psychophysics and refined some of Weber’s principles of perception Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894): contributions to the study of memory, physiology, color vision, laws of conservation in physics and music theory, geometry, meteorology… first to calculate the speed of a nerve impulse at about 90 feet per second

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): credited with giving psych its independence from philosophy and physiology … did so by applying scientific methods of physiology and physics to questions of philosophy  1879- set up a psych lab in Leipzig, Germany … considered the birthplace of experimental psychology … trained more than 180 students G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924): learned from Wundt and at Harvard, studied with William James, who is considered the founder of American psychology  First PhD in psych in US as James student … opened first psych lab in the US at John Hopkins in Baltimore … started first scientific journal in American psych called ‘American Journal of Psych’ Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930): William James’s student who became the first female president of APA in 1905 … conducted research on dreaming, gender issues, and self-image Edward Titchener (1867-1927): British American trained by Wilhelm Wundt coined the following terms  Structuralism: breaking down experience into its elemental parts offered the best way to understand thought and behavior  Structuralists believed that a detailed analysis of experience as it happened provided the most accurate glimpse into the workings of the human mind … divide each experience into its smallest elements  By using introspection: looking into one’s own mind for information about the nature of conscious experience  Wundt, the chief proponent of structuralism, wanted to describe human experience in terms of the elements that combined to produce it… ex. When describing peach…describe as sweet, round, fuzzy, wet instead of ‘good peach’  Functionalism: better to look at why the mind works the way it does than describe its parts … inspired by Charles Darwin theory of natural selection  Why do people think, feel, or perceive, and how do these abilities come to be?  Also use introspection… William James relied on introspection as a primary method of understanding how the mind worked

John Watson (1913): founded behaviorism Page 4 of 19

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Behaviorism: psychology can be true science only if it examines observable behavior, not ideas, thoughts, feelings, or motives … mental experiences are hypothetical concepts = not measurable  Extreme form of environmentalism, the view that all behavior comes from experience interacting with the world … like John Locke’s blank slate at birth Became dominant force in experimental psych because of B.F. skinner … modified Watson’s ideas … consequences shape behavior

Humanistic Psychology: promoted personal growth and meaning as a way of reaching one’s highest potential  Presented by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers … argued that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism ignored people at their best, and neither approach considered what it meant to be psychologically healthy  Positive Psychology: started by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi which shares with humanism the belief that psychology should focus on studying, understanding, and promoting healthy and positive psychological functioning … does so with better appreciation than humanistic for the important of studying well-being from a scientific way Gestalt Psychology (after the German word for ‘whole form’): proposed that perception occurs in unified wholes, where the whole is more than the sum of its parts  Led by Max Wertheimer … Gestaltists argue our brains actively shape sensory information into perceptions  Cognitive thinking/science was born in 1960s … no longer called mental but called cognitive science…some of cognitive thinking was based on book by Frederick Bartlett  Wrote that memory is not an objective and accurate representation of events, but rather highly personal reconstruction based on one’s own beliefs, ideas, and point of view  Ex: witness to crime might hold a bias of how likely a crime is committed by a certain race/background, witness may misremember how the accused look like  When people remember, they reconstruct experience in terms of what is most relevant to then rather than unbiased perspective … our cognitive framework organize how we experience the world Evolutionary Psychology: who we are and what we do and think are influenced by genetic factors (behavioral genetics) and brain activity (behavioral neuroscience) with a long evolutionary past… jump started by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides published ‘The Psych Foundations of Culture’  Branch of psychology that aims to uncover the adaptive problems the human mind may have solved in the past and effect of evolution on behavior today… changes organs + body structures Critical Thinking: a process by which one analyzes, evaluates, and forms ideas … Paul Chance  Core traits: sound analysis, evaluation, formation of ideas based on evidence at hand  Metacognitive thinking: requires the ability to think and then reflect on one’s own thinking  Able to question their own thinking Psychological Perspectives and Human Behavior

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Psychoanalytic-Psychodynamic: focus on the importance of early childhood experience and relationships with parents as guiding forces that shape personality … unconscious mind and motives more powerful than conscious awareness … psychoanalysis use dream interpretation and uncovering unconscious thoughts, feelings as form of treatment of neurosis and mental illness … (Freud, Adler, Jung, Horney) Behaviorism Learning: all behaviors are learned through association and consequences (forced or punished) … to shape desire, understand and establish the conditions about those behaviors. Focus on behaviors and not unobservable internal states like thoughts/feelings … (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura) Cognitive: how we think about ourselves, other people, world … assumptions we make, and strategies used for solving problems and interacting with others … what we do is shaped by how we think and view the world … (Chomsky. Piaget, Kahneman, Tversky) Humanistic Positive: people stive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and psychological health …(Maslow, Rogers, Seligman) Sociocultural/Cross-Culture: immediate (micro: family, friends) and larger (macro: region and nation) environments impact and mold people personality from birth … (Hofstede, Triandis) Neuropsych-Behavioral Genetic: behavior, thoughts, feeling = different genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems … way we think, traits = different genotype and central nervous system … (Kandel, Milner, Bouchard, Plomin) Evolutionary: based on evolved brain systems… behavior, thought, and persionality have been shaped by forces of evolution (natural and sexual selection) … (Tooby, Cosmides, Buss)

Nature vs Nurture  Nature: who we are comes from inborn tendencies and genetically based traits  Nature through nurture: environment constantly interacts with biology to shape who we are and what we do  Evolution: change over time in the frequency with which specific genes occur within a breeding species  Natural selection: feedback process whereby nature favors one design over another, depending on whether it has an impact on reproduction… occurs by chance but chance mutations can alter design of a structure or a set of behaviors  Sexual selection: members of the opposite sex find certain traits attractive or appealing so over time traits become more common  Adaptations: inherited solutions to ancestral problems that have been naturally and sexually selected… reproductive success… solve problems from past not current  By-products or exaptation: structure or features that perform a function that did not arise through natural selection… some things evolve to solve one problem and it happens to solve another one too  Ex: Feathers… was insulation from flightless dinosaurs but it turn useful for flight in birds

Rationalism: logic and reason are the way to understand how the world works

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Logic is powerful tool, but it can only tell us how the world should work, not how the world actually works

3 Types of Science  Physical sciences: study the world of things – stars, light, waves, atoms, Earth, molecules, etc. which includes physics, astronomy, chem, and geology  Biological sciences: study plants and animals in the broadest sense which includes biology, genetics, botany, and zoology  Social sciences: study humans, both as individuals and as groups which includes anthropology, sociology, economics, and psychology Scientific Thinking: the reasoning skills required to generate, test, and revise theories  3 central attitudes: question authority (be skeptical of others and your own ideas), open skepticism (doubt), intellectual honesty (no faking data or falsifying) Scientific Method: the five process that scientists use to conduct research  Observe, Predict, Test, Interpret, Communicate  Theory: a set of related assumptions from which testable predications can be made …organize and explain what we have observed and guide what we will observe … explain facts  Hypothesis: a specific, informed, and testable prediction of what kind of outcome should occur under a particular condition  Reliability: the test or measure gives us a consistent result over time or between different raters  Validity: the degree to which a test accurately measures what it purports to measure, such as intelligence, and not something else, and the degree to it predicts real-world outcomes  Replication: repetition of a study to confirm results Pseudoscience: practices that appear to be and claim to be science but it do not use scientific method to come to their conclusions … ex: astrology which uses position of the sun, moon, and planets to explain personality traits…. Differs from science because science use open skepticism Research designs: plans for how to conduct a study…randomly or surveys…etc.  Variable: anything that changes within or between individuals…age, gender, weight  Population: first step is to decide the makeup of the entire group in which they are interested… animals, teens, boys or girls, college students, etc.  Sample: small subset of each population… ex: population of college students might consist of those enrolled in one or more scho...


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