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Prometheus Bound Aeschylus

Context Aeschylus was born in 525 B.C. Eleusis, his birthplace, was known for its mystical rituals of worship to the Earth goddess Demeter. Biographers enjoy attributing the mysticism of the author's plays to this early influence. According to legend, Dionysus, the god of wine and drama, appeared to Aeschylus in a dream and told him to write tragedies, which the seventeenyear-old easily proceeded to do. He spent much of his life in Athens, where he witnessed political and social changes that almost certainly influenced his plays: Prometheus's rebellion against tyranny could only have been invented by an author who had seen firsthand the collapse of tyranny, the introduction of a constitution, and the slow maturation of the world's first democracy. Aeschylus fought against the Persians who invaded Athens and lost his brother in the final battle. A play, The Persians, draws on his experience. His tragedies also reflect the cultural shift in Athens, as new scientific and philosophical ideas threatened to supplant traditional faith in the gods. Aeschylus died honored and revered as a poet, though apparently under unusual circumstances. An eagle, trying to crack open a turtle by dropping it on something hard, had difficulty distinguishing bald heads from rocks. We are not told whether the turtle shell cracked, but Aeschylus's head certainly did. Aeschylus is credited with inventing drama. Contemporary theater has more in common with the tragedies of Aeschylus than the latter had with previous drama. Before Aeschylus, drama involved a single actor on stage speaking in monologues while a chorus offered extensive commentary. Aeschylus introduced a second actor on stage, allowing for action and interaction to take place and establishing a caste of professional actors. He let the chorus converse with the characters, introduced elaborate costumes and stage designs, and wrote a good deal of material for the stage himself. Over eighty plays are credited to his name, of which only seven have been

preserved in full by the efforts of ancient grammarians who considered these particular tragedies appropriate material for instructing schoolboys. Of the Aeschylean tragedies passed down to us, Prometheus Boundmay be the most significant for the intellectual history of Western civilization, with its rebellious spirit and faith in human progress. The play also presents the greatest number of difficulties for scholars. First and foremost is the problem of authorship. Throughout the history of Greek scholarship, experts have trusted historiographers from the third century B.C. who attributed the tragedy to Aeschylus. Recent examination, however, has shown that Prometheus Bounddiffers substantially from Aeschylus's other plays in subject matter, character portrayal, setting, and, most importantly, meter and style. Some have gone so far as to argue that certain linguistic turns and philosophical ideas expressed in the tragedy simply were not available to playwrights before 456 B.C., the year of Aeschylus's death. Most of the differences with the other plays can be explained away, but the fact that there are so many differences that require explanation suggests that the problem of authorship cannot be ignored. A more likely alternative to the traditional view is that either a follower of Aeschylus wrote the play, or that Aeschylus had written some of the play and a later playwright finished it off for him. A second difficulty is the dearth of information on the other tragedies in the series. Greek tragedians wrote trilogies for festivals, and scholars tend to assume that there was in fact a Prometheus trilogy. We have the names of two further plays: Prometheus Unbound and Prometheus the Fire Bringer. These almost certainly followed Prometheus Bound and their existence suggests that the traditional view of the tragedy should be revised. Prometheus Bound has always been seen as a call to rebellion against an unjust god. Christian writers have condemned it, while atheists and Romantics have almost turned it into a manifesto. Both sides were probably too hasty to jump to conclusions. A Greek playwright of Aeschylus's stature could not conceivably have let things stand as they do

at the end of Prometheus Bound, with Prometheus up in arms against Zeus. Foreshadowing in the play itself clearly presumes a resolution and reconciliation between the two enemies. Furthermore, as every Greek knew, Zeus was not defeated by his offspring as Prometheus predicts, which means that Prometheus must have warned him how to avoid the fall. Existing fragments of Prometheus Unbound imply that Zeus has mellowed out and let his former enemies, the Titans, out of their imprisonment. It is certain that Heracles appeared in the later play and killed the eagle tormenting Prometheus. Reconciliation must ultimately have occurred to satisfy Prometheus's prophesies in the first part of the trilogy, ancient Greek morality also demands such reconciliation. The Greeks wholeheartedly opposed extremes of all kinds: tragic heroes were repeatedly doomed through excessive pride. This in itself suggests that neither Zeus nor Prometheus could have been left hate-filled and overly proud at the end of the trilogy. The story of Prometheus is certainly a story of rebellion and an allegory about humanity's struggle with nature through perseverance and intelligence. But it must also be a story of maturation, reconciliation, friendship, and the reestablishment of a balance between god and Titan, as well as humanity and nature.

Plot Overview Kratus and Bia, two servants of Zeus, carry in Prometheus and hold him against a rocky mountain in the Caucasus. Hephaestus, whose job is to chain Prometheus to the rock, follows them. Kratus states that this is a punishment for giving fire to human beings, and Prometheus must learn to like Zeus's rule. Hephaestus expresses his pity for Prometheus, lamenting the fact that he must bind his friend to the rock. Kratus urges him on, insisting that pity for Zeus's enemies is both useless and dangerous. Hephaestus finishes his task and leaves with Kratus and Bia. Prometheus calls on nature to witness the suffering of a god at the hands of other gods, specifically the new ruler Zeus. He mentions that he has the gift of prophecy and knows all that will happen. He must live with his suffering because no one can fight fate. Prometheus hears the sound of wings and discovers that it is

the Chorus of Oceanids, daughters of Oceanus, on winged chariots. The Oceanids express their sympathy for Prometheus's suffering, explaining that the new ruler of Olympus follows only his own laws. Prometheus prophecies that one days Zeus will be in danger and will be forced to befriend him to avoid it. Asked what crime he has committed to deserve this punishment, Prometheus recounts the war between Zeus and the Titans. He had tried to help the Titans, but they refused his guile and decided to use force. Prometheus then offered his guile to Zeus, helping him win. Now Zeus punishes him because like all tyrants he distrusts his friends. Zeus had planned to destroy humanity but Prometheus stood in his way. Questioned further, Prometheus recounts that he gave humanity blind hope and also the gift of fire. The Chorus responds to this last admission, saying that he has sinned, but Prometheus replies that he did so willingly and will not now renounce his action. He asks the Chorus to come down to earth so he can tell them the whole story. Oceanus flies in on a winged beast and says that Prometheus should stop provoking Zeus while he himself goes to the god to have Prometheus freed. Prometheus responds that talking to Zeus would be useless and Oceanus should not place himself in danger by getting involved. Oceanus argues that words are needed for healing, but Prometheus counters that the medicine must be applied at the proper time. Convinced by Prometheus's categorical refusal of his help, Oceanus departs. The Chorus sings that the entire old world mourns for Prometheus and his brothers who also suffer at the hands of Zeus, especially Atlas who must hold the world. Prometheus summarizes everything he has done for humanity. He taught human beings agriculture, language, mathematics, harnessing of animals, and sailing. He also taught medicine, divination, and mining. He insists that all human arts come from him. Prometheus almost reveals his prophecy to the Chorus, but stops himself, saying only that it will free him because Zeus is a slave to necessity like all others. The Oceanids affirm their piety to Zeus, chide Prometheus for helping mortals who cannot help him back, and remember his happy wedding to their sister. Io enters wearing cow horns. Screaming that a gadfly is biting her and the ghost of Argos pursues her, she calls on Zeus and asks why he tortures her like this. In

response to her questions, Prometheus reveals who he is and why he is being punished. Io asks him to tell her about her future wanderings, but first the Chorus asks to know of her past suffering. Io tells how Zeus became infatuated with her and forced her father to drive her out of his house. Io was turned into a cow and guarded by Argos, but he was killed and returned as a ghost along with a gadfly that drove her around the world. Prometheus tells her of her future wanderings through Europe, Asia, and Africa, where she must constantly avoid dangerous peoples and monsters. Prometheus reveals that Zeus, who makes Io suffer, will one day choose a mate whose son will depose his father. Only Prometheus can help Zeus prevent this. He reveals also that one day Io's descendant will free him. He then concludes the story of Io's journey, telling how at the end of her suffering Zeus will cure and impregnate her with a gentle touch of his hand. Prometheus talks about Io's descendants, who will become kings of the city Argos. Io runs off again tortured by the gadfly, and the Oceanids chant about the dangers of marrying above one's own rank, expressing the hope that Zeus never takes an interest in them. Angered by Io's suffering, Prometheus shouts out that Zeus's own son will topple him. Zeus's messenger Hermes enters and orders Prometheus to reveal the identity of this son's mother. Prometheus mocks Hermes and says that he will tell nothing. Hermes accuses Prometheus of being overly obstinate, disobedient, and mad. Prometheus deflects each accusation with direct insults or sarcasm. Hermes warns that if Prometheus does not yield, a storm will send him to Tartarus. Then he will emerge only to have an eagle eat his liver every day, and this will not end until a god agrees to die for him. The Chorus advises Prometheus to yield, but he shows no fear of his destiny. Hermes orders the Oceanids away, but they reply that to betray a friend is the worst crime of all and vow to stay with Prometheus. As the earth begins to shake and thunder gathers around him, Prometheus calls on the elements to witness his suffering.

Character List Prometheus - The protagonist of the play. Prometheus aided Zeus against his fellow Titans only to be punished for giving fire to human beings. Prometheus demonstrates the value of thought and knowledge in progress as well as in the opposition and temperance of tyrannical power. He is a rare example of a Greek tragic hero whose faults, such as excessive pride and stubbornness, ennoble him. Prometheus opposes Zeus because of his anger over his punishment, bolstered by his anger over the mistreatment of his brothers and Io. He is also driven to opposition by a belief in the value friendship. His friendship for humanity is the cause of his punishment, but he views as equally important Zeus's inability to recognize the importance of friendship. Prometheus shows that if intellect and force cannot work together, then intellect must oppose force, since it is useless if dominated by power. Zeus - Though he does not appear in the play, Zeus clearly deserves mention as a major character. He rules by his own laws, creating a world where no one but him can be free. Both the objects of his hatred and his love can easily fall to misfortune since Zeus, unfamiliar with sympathy and pity, does not concern himself with the welfare of others. Unable to rule through any means other than brute force, Zeus is presented as a perfect example of a fairly stupid but powerful tyrant who shows no regard for others not because he is evil but because he hasn't given it any thought. Zeus's servants take it for granted that everyone must be taught to love him and hate his enemies. Zeus's rule demands that his servants surrender any trace of individuality in obedience to his will. Hermes - A mindless servant of Zeus. Hermes appears in sharp contrast to Prometheus. Like his master, Hermes understands neither friendship nor pity, but only force and obedience. Hermes is certain that he is on the right side, and certain also that his master is all-powerful. Though he comes down from Olympus to question Prometheus about the future threat to Zeus's power, Hermes clearly does not take this threat seriously. He is highly arrogant, but not horribly bright as illustrated in a scene where every insult and accusations he throws at Prometheus gets turned around by the recipient and shipped back in force.

Io - A victim of Zeus's love. Io is exiled from her home because Zeus wishes to deflower her. Transformed into a cow, she wanders the earth awaiting salvation. Io is seen as a parallel to Prometheus: though she suffers, in the end she will be freed and rewarded. Her descendant will free Prometheus, bonding their fates together. As the only human, despite being technically bovine, in the play, Io ties the cosmic conflict of gods to known human history and geography as Prometheus documents her wanderings and the future of her offspring. Oceanids - Serve the proper role of a Chorus in Greek tragedy. The Oceanids advocate adherence to the moral norm to a protagonist who has deviated from that norm. Until the end, the Oceanids maintain two moral orientations. First, they consistently demonstrate sympathy with the hero's suffering and avow their friendship. Second, they counsel him to bow down to a greater power and tone down his defiance since nothing good can come of opposing Zeus. By deviating from the moral norm at the end, however, the Oceanids manage to establish a new moral norm that contradicts Zeus's own laws. Oceanus - Comfortable in his service to Zeus, Oceanus believes that one should not rock the boat but simply obey. He agrees that Zeus is too harsh and extends his sympathy to Prometheus with an offer of help. Something about Oceanus's advice and his demeanor seems a little off-putting, however. First, he suggests that one should simply give up and accept injustice rather than fighting it—Prometheus should stop being defiant and not provoke a stubborn and excessive Zeus. Second, Prometheus clearly does not trust Oceanus, telling him much less than he had told the Chorus only a moment ago. Oceanus, while counseling his friend and expressing sympathy, seems to be waiting to leave the entire time—he does not get off his winged animal and states that it is eager to fly home, as if his visit to Prometheus was only a chore on a long list. Hephaestus - Like Oceanus, Hephaestus is an obedient but unwilling servant. He bows to Zeus's force, but wishes he did not have to. Hephaestus first introduces pity and friendship into the tragedy while

chiding Zeus's servants for their insensitivity. Yet Hephaestus does what he is told, showing him to be closer to Kratus than to Prometheus in his outlook. Hephaestus, however, seems to obey more out of fear than out of a complete identification with his ruler, which seems more the case with Kratus and Hermes. Kratus - Simply accepts Zeus's orders completely. Zeus's justice, for Kratus, is the only possible justice. Kratus cannot understand how someone might fail to hate an enemy of Zeus. He shows an absolute identification of a slave with his master, taking Zeus's thoughts as his thoughts and Zeus's orders as his maxims. Unlike Hephaestus and Oceanus, Kratus experiences no friendship or pity because he has no value system outside the one imposed on him by Zeus. The name Kratus means force, so as a representative of Zeus, this character demonstrates the nature of Zeus's rule. Bia - Bia's name means violence, representing the nature of Zeus's power. Bia is a silent character, helping Kratus bring Prometheus to the rock to be chained. We can assume that what holds for Kratus holds also for Bia.

Themes, Motifs, and Symbols Themes TYRANNY AND FRIENDSHIP

Zeus is presented as the ultimate tyrant because he will not honor the rules of friendship or understand such things as friendship, love, or sympathy. Zeus punishes Prometheus even though Prometheus was the deciding factor in his victory over the Titans. The punishment is presented as particularly reprehensible not because it is so harsh, but because it is imposed on someone who was a friend. Aeschylus intentionally highlights this fact by inserting references to friendship throughout the play. Hephaestus mentions that Zeus's orders trouble him because of his bond of

friendship with Prometheus, and Oceanus offers his help out of friendship. The Chorus, despite counseling obedience throughout the play, suddenly switches at the end to affirming friendship as a greater value. Moreover, at least one major reason for Prometheus's punishment is that he values his friendship with human beings above reverence for Zeus. The reason Zeus cannot understand friendship lies in his self-confidence and the accompanying belief that all must obey him. Prometheus's insistence on the importance of friendship, bolstered by the Chorus at the conclusion of the play, suggests that obedience is only a secondary value. Zeus's tyranny appears as evil and misguided rather than deserved and just. In moral terms, it seems, it is not better to be feared than loved. THOUGHT AND FORCE Prometheus and Zeus square off as the representative of intelligence and the invisible symbol of force, respectively. Prometheus helped Zeus defeat the Titans by using guile. When Prometheus attempted to use his intelligence to aid humanity, however, Zeus used his force to punish Prometheus. The conflict is emphasized throughout the play—Zeus's henchmen mock Prometheus for not being clever enough to avoid or escape punishment, and both the Chorus and Oceanus chide him for this in a more sympathetic manner. Yet Prometheus makes clear that without his knowledge Zeus will fall, overthrown by a power greater than his own. Force can overwhelm thought but cannot exist indefinitely without it. In Prometheus Bound Aeschylus intentionally cultivates an apparently irresolvable conflict between force and intelligence by presenting Prometheus as the powerless but defiant victim of an unjust and powerful god who rules by arbitrary laws and demands blind obedience. Underlying this conflict, however, is the idea that force requires thought to guide and sustain it. Aeschylus is clearly preparing us for a resolution where thought and force work together to avoid catastrophe. Prometheus's thoughtful defiance, in opposition to the unthinking obedience of Zeus's cronies, underscores the idea that thought must be sustained. Prometheus's clear

judgment will one day save Zeus, while his opposition to Zeus is a necessary stage on the path to resolution. EXCESS Both Prometheus and Zeus are constantly accused of being too excessive in their stubbornness. Prometheus will not obey and Zeus will not end his punishment. Even in love Zeus is shown to be excessive, as his obsession with Io ruins her life. As we have seen, excess is the greatest sin in Greek moral thought. The healthy functioning of the universe requires the cooperation of opposing elements, such as thought and power, and the avoidance of excessive positions. Nothing good can come of conflict. The Chorus constantly emphasizes this moral belief while counseling Prometheus to tone down his defiance. In Greek tragedy excess, usually excess of pride, is almost universally condemned. Here, although they lead to Prometheus's suffering, his excessive pride and defiance are cl...