PSY207 Revision Notes PDF

Preview

Summary

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 1CHAPTER 1: Understanding Life-Span Human DevelopmentDevelopment  Development can be defined as “systematic changes and continuities” in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb” (across the life span)  Developmental psychologist...

Description

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1: Understanding Life-Span Human Development Development  Development can be defined as “systematic changes and continuities” in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb” (across the life span)  Developmental psychologists study the ways in which people change over the course of the lifespan, from conception to the end of life, as well as continuities, or how people stay the same even as they age.  Changes may involve gain or loss, neutral changes, or continuities (e.g., older people may lose their physical strength but gain in cognitive abilities – such as vocabulary & other types of intelligence)  The systematic changes and continuities of interest students of human development fall into three broad domains: o Physical Development – The growth of the body and its organs, the functioning of physiological systems including the brain, physical signs of aging, changes in motor abilities, and so on (bodily changes, growth, maturation) o Cognitive Development – Changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and other mental processes (processes of thinking, reasoning, problem solving) o Psychosocial Development – Changes and carryover in personal and interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, interpersonal skills and relationships, and roles played in the family and in the larger society (emotions, personality, social interactions)  We must view development in its historical, cultural, and subcultural context Human Life Span Periods

 Useful guide for physical, cognitive and psychosocial developments that occur throughout the human lifespan  However, some cultures may not recognize adolescence as a distinct period, or simply distinguish between adult ages in terms of their functioning o Rites of passage: A ritual that marks a person’s “passage” from one status to another, usually in reference to the transition from childhood to adulthood (E.g., body painting, circumcision, beatings, instruction by elders in adult sexual practices, tests of physical prowess, and gala celebrations) o Age Grades (different statuses, roles, privileges, and responsibilities)  Age Norms (society’s way of telling people how to act their age)  Social Clock (a person’s sense of when things should be done and when he or she is ahead of or behind the schedule dictated by age norm) o Diverse with respect to race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (Impacts of poverty on development: Lower average academic achievement but in poorer mental health and well-being and even poorer physical health in adulthood)  “Preschool period” is a term defined by a culture that has such a schooling system  “Emerging adulthood” is a distinct phrase of the life span in which college-aged youth spend years getting educated and saving money in order to launch their adult lives Nature-Nurture Issue  The nature-nurture interaction is a major subject in the study of human development  Twin studies (identical/fraternal twins) are used to study this issue o Same DNA, but may have hidden differences o Similar mannerisms, interests, abilities  Developmental changes are generally the result of interactions between nature & nurture  For example, biology (nature) provides us with the beginnings of a brain that allows us to learn from our experiences (nurture), experiences that in turn change our brains by altering neural connections and that can even change our genes by activating or deactivating them Nature  Emphasizes the influence of heredity, universal maturational processes guided by the genes, biologically based or innate predispositions produced by evolution and biological influences  Sees development as the process of maturation  Individual develops according to the biological makeup of his or her genes Nurture  Sees development as a response to the environment (external physical and social conditions, stimuli, and events that can affect us)  Individual develops in response to: o The physical and social surroundings he or she lives in

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 1

Urie Bronfenbrenn er’s Bioecological Model

o Experiences with the environment o Cultural influences  Emphasizes learning – the process through which experience brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings, or behavior Developmental Perspectives Definition: Bronfenbrenner’s model of development that emphasizes the roles of both nature and nurture as the developing person interacts with a series of environmental systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem) over time (chronosystem).  Describes how biology and environment interact to produce development  Development should be seen as the individual existing within a series of environmental systems, such as the home and work (or school) environment as well as the larger cultural environment  Each system affects the individual, and systems also interact with one another, influencing development

 Immediate physical and social environment in which the individual interacts face to face with others (e.g., family, school, work)  The individual influences others and is affected by others in turn Mesosystem  Consists of connections between microsystems  E.g., Family conflicts can have a negative impact on school experiences (how we behave and perform) Exosystem  Consists of linkages amongst social settings which do not contain, but can still influence an individual  E.g., Parents’ job demands can affect the decisions they make about their children) Macrosystem  The larger cultural context the individual is in  E.g., Societal values, norms, and way of life Chronosystem  Refers to changes in the person and the environment that unfold over the person’s life  Also refers to the historical timeframe in which development occurs  E.g., The impact of events on development will unfold over time (repercussions of divorce/separation) Define: A perspective that views development as a lifelong, multidirectional process that involves gain and loss, is characterized by considerable plasticity, is shaped by its historical–cultural context, has many causes, and is best viewed from a multidisciplinary perspective.

Microsystem

Paul Balte’s Modern Lifespan Perspective

Seven Key Assumptions: LMGPHMM 1. Development is a lifelong process – Best seen in the context of the whole life span 2.

Development is multidirectional – Different capacities show different patterns of change over time. Different aspects of human functioning have different trajectories of change.

3.

Development involves both gain and loss – Evident in each phase of the life span

4.

Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity – Plasticity refers to the capacity to change in response to experience, whether positive or negative. This plasticity continues into later life; the aging process is not fixed but rather can take many forms depending on the individual’s environment and experiences.

5.

Development is shaped by its historical-cultural context – Our developments at any period of life depend on formative influences (social contexts and historical times) from earlier in life and will also influence subsequent developments.

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 1

6.

Development is multiply influenced – Human development is the product of nature and nurture, of many interacting causes both inside and outside the person, and both biological and environmental.

7.

Development must be studied by multiple disciplines – Multidisciplinary perspective Research Methods  Developmental psychology seeks to: o Describe both development and individual variations in development – Characterize functioning / behavioural changes at different ages over time o Predict development (finding a relationship between possible influence on development and an aspect of development) o Explain why normal human development proceeds as it does, & why individuals develop differently o Optimize human development by enhancing human capabilities, and preventing or overcoming developmental problems Specialized Research Designs – Terminologies 1. Age Effects – The relationships between age (a rough proxy for changes brought about by nature and nurture) and an aspect of development 2. Cohort Effects – The effects of being born as a member of a specific generation within a particular historical context (e.g., children who are born during war times) 3. Time of Measurement Effects – The effects of historical events or trends when the data are collected (e.g., advances in technology, or major world events like a global economic recession) The performances of people of different age groups, or cohorts, are compared. A cohort is a group of individuals Crossborn at the same time, either in the same year or within a specified span of years. Sectional Design  Provides information about age differences – how performances change with age  E.g., Test 3 different groups of individuals at 5 yo, 10 yo, 15 yo, and compare them  Advantages: o Can get data within a day  Disadvantages: o Comparison of different individuals, but cannot say for certain that that will be the specific developmental milestones they would go through in the future o Cannot account for the differences Longitudinal One cohort of individuals is assessed repeatedly over time Design  Provides information about age changes, rather than age differences  E.g., Test them at 5 yo, subsequently test them every few months until they are age 15  Advantages: o Allows us to get better results  Disadvantages: o Tracking of people can be time-consuming o Participants might drop out o Costly Sequential Able to get information about how each batch develops over a period of years and also how the individual Design batches are different  Combination of cross-sectional & longitudinal studies  E.g., 3 different age groups, across a few years  Investment in time, effort, & resources

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2: Ways to Think about Human Development

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.











Five Key Developmental Issues Whether people are innately good or bad, or whether this is shaped over the course of development Nature-Nurture: Whether development is shaped more by nature or by nurture Activity-Passivity: Whether people are active participants in their own development, or passive beings shaped by biological and environmental influences Continuity-Discontinuity: Whether development is a process that occurs in gradual, incremental changes, or in distinct stages characterized by rapid changes between each stage – qualitative vs. quantitative changes Universality-Context Specificity: Whether development is universal, regardless of cultural and other contexts, or whether development is context specific Psychoanalytic Theories Strengths Weaknesses Called attention to: Sigmund Freud  Vague and difficult to o Focuses on innate biological motivations called instincts test  The unconscious processes underlying  Describes development and how these can influence our behaviour unconsciously human behaviours but does not explain how o Individual’s personality consists of the id, ego and it occurs  Early experience and its superego; the id is present from birth, and the ego and impact on later superego develop during childhood development o Five psychosexual stages from birth to adolescence  Emotional conflicts in development, and personality Erik Erikson o Eight major psychosocial stages o Each stage consists of a conflict to be resolved by the individual; failure to resolve a conflict has negative consequences and affects how the subsequent conflict plays out o Erikson’s ideas about adolescent identity formation and issues faced during adulthood have been supported by research Learning Theories Strengths Weaknesses Ivan Pavlov  Precise and testable  Does not show that o Classical Conditioning learning is responsible  Operates across the life span and can be used to for our developmental o Views development as primarily shaped by the environment understand behaviours at changes B.F. Skinner any age  Tend to place little o Operant Conditioning emphasis on biological o Views development as primarily shaped by the environment  Basis for many highly effective techniques for influences (genetic Albert Bandura optimizing development endowment, maturational o Social Cognitive Theory and treating processes) on o Individuals can learn by thinking about the potential developmental problems development consequences of their actions and by observing the

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 2 consequences of others’ actions o Human development occurs through reciprocal determinism; a continuous interaction between the individual, his or her environment, and his or her behaviour Cognitive Developmental Theory  Jean Piaget o Views that development is far from passive o Children are active explorers and seekers of information o All children progress through a series of stages of cognitive development, from birth to adolescence and beyond o Each stage is marked by increasingly sophisticated cognitive abilities Systems Theories  Urie Bronfenbrenner o Bioecological model  Gottleib’s Epigenetic Psychobiological Systems Perspective o Considers the interaction of nature and nurture at individual and species levels o Genes, neural activity, behaviour and environmental factors influence one another

Strengths Influenced education and child rearing practices:  Modify programs to children’s level of understanding  Child-directed learning





Strengths Emphasizes the interaction between individuals and the contexts in which they develop Conceptualizes development as the product of interacting biological and environmental forces operating within a complex system. For example, a parent’s decision about whether to take up a job that requires overseas postings will affect where the child develops, even though the parent’s work environment is not one which the child interacts with directly

Weaknesses  Underestimates the cognitive abilities of young children  Places little emphasis on the role of parents and others in nurturing cognitive development Weaknesses  Does not provide a clear picture of the course of human development  Generalizations about development cannot be made, because development is individualistic due to the unique interactions we have with our environments  Too broad, too general (Bronfenbrenner’s)

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 2

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 2

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 15.1 – 15.3

CHAPTER 15: Understanding the Family Family Systems Theory Definition: The conceptualization of the family as a whole consisting of interrelated parts, each of which affects and is affected by every other part, and each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.  Family is a dynamic system whose members contribute to the functioning of the family system  According to this family systems theory, the members of the family affect each other and are affected by each other in turn  Family changes over time and is affected by changes in other systems  Some changes include: Older parents, more women working, more divorces, smaller families, more single-parent and reconstituted families Mother-infant, Father-infant and Spousal Relationships There are many other relationships (and systems) acting in a reciprocal way, which affect development, e.g. the nuclear family comprises the father, mother and child.  Types of relationships: Mother-child, Father-child, Husband-wife, Co-parenting subsystem (the way the two parents coordinate their parenting, and function as a team in relating to their children), Maid-child system (in some cases) o When there are two or more children: Marital subsystem, Parent-child subsystem, Sibling-sibling system o Extended family household – combination of other kin Family as a Changing System in a Changing World Family life cycle – A sequence of changes in family composition, roles, relationships, and developmental tasks from the time people marry until they die Trends since 1950s 1. More single adults 2.

More postponed marriages

3.

More unmarried parents

4.

Fewer children

5.

More working mothers

6.

More divorce

7.

More single-parent families

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 15.1 – 15.3

8.

More remarriages – Often form new, reconstituted families (or blended families), that include at least a parent, stepparent, and one child

9.

More years without children

10. More multigenerational families 11. Fewer caregivers for aging adults

Family Systems The Family System and the Infant:  Mothers and fathers typically differ in the quantity and the style of parenting (e.g., mothers as caregivers, fathers as playmates), which is partly due to biological, evolutionary, societal, and cultural influences  Early development and cognitive, social and emotional aspects of development are all positively affected by the presence of an involved father  Parents have indirect effects on their children through the relationship that they have with each other: A positive relationship between father and mother results in better parent-child relationships. For example, parents are more likely to be patient with their children and to be responsive to their needs if the parents feel that their marital relationship is stable and that they are supportive of each other  Role of both parents are important o Babies are likely to be more socially competent if securely attached to both parents o Children generally have fewer psychological disorders/problems if their father is a caring, involved, and effective parent The Family System and the Child:  Parent Effects Model o Parents influence children  Child Effects Model o Family as a dynamic system – Child influences parents (e.g., the age of a child and his/her competence affects the parenting style)  Infants require and elicit sensitive care  Older toddlers require instructions and limits to be set  Transactional Model o Parents and children influence each other reciprocally (determines how the parent-child relationship and child’s development unfold) o A child’s age and behaviour can influence the style of parenting that parents will use on the particular child. E.g., a badly behaved child might elicit harsh parenting, which then provokes the child to exhibit even more bad behaviour Parenting Styles

PSY207e Revision Notes: Chapter 15.1 – 15.3 As children grow up, in addition to being caregivers and playmates, parents also serve as guides and disciplinarians. Parenting styles can be differentiated based on where they lie on two dimensions, and from these two dimensions, four major styles of parenting have been identified, each associated with differing developmental outcomes for the children subject to the parenting style in question. Two dimensions: 1. Acceptance-responsiveness – how supportive and sensitive to the needs of their children parents are, and are willing to provide affection and praise 2.

Demandingness-control – how much control over decisions lie with the parents as opposed to the child

Authoritarian

Authoritative

 Parents impose many rules and expect strict obedience  Rarely explain why the child should comply with the rules  Often rely on “power tactics” to gain compliance, e.g. physical punishment  Children tend to be moody and seemingly unhappy, easily annoyed and unpleasant to be around Parents:  Are more flexible than authoritative parents; they are still demanding and exert control, but are also more accepting and responsive  They set clear rules which are consistently enforced and expla...