PSYC 2104 Chapters 3-5 - Chapter notes PDF

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1 Chapter 3:  * risk factors and causes of abnormal behavior - Necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes - Feedback and bidirectionality in abnormal behavior - Diathesis stress model - Questions about what causes people to experience mental distress and to behave maladaptively are central to this field - Understanding the causes of abnormality is difficult because human behavior is so complex - The main goal of clinical psychology is to understand the nature of relationships among variables of interest - Correlates can be risk factors, but may not be causal risk factors - Causal risk factors are those variable markers that when changed, are followed by a change in the disorder when eliminated results in the elimination or failure of the disorder to occur - Many causal factors happen in an individual’s past and cannot be changed - To identify causal risk factors often requires an animal model * necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes - Etiology: causal pattern of abnormal behavior - Necessary cause (x): must exist in order for a disorder to occur - Sufficient cause (y): guarantees occurrence of disorder, but may not be only sufficient causal factor - Contributory cause: increases probability of developing disorder - Reinforcing the contributory cause maintains maladaptive behavior that is already occurring

2 - Distal causal factors: occur early in life or don’t show effects for many years - examples: history of alcohol problems or youth aggression - Proximal (immediate) risk factors: shows immediate vulnerability for a particular condition or event - examples: heavy drinking or cocaine use - Reinforcing contributory cause: condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring * feedback and bidirectionality in abnormal behavior - In the study of abnormal psychology, why can it be difficult to specify which are effects? - effects can serve as feedback that in turn influence the causes; for example, Negative thinking with depression - influences can be two way/ bidirectional; for example, external stressors like Grades * diathesis-stress models - Stressor: challenge to well being - Diathesis: (predisposition) relatively distal necessary or contributory cause that is not sufficient to cause disorder - Stress: an individual’s reaction to stressors - diathesis stress models: combination of diathesis and stress to cause disorder - Many mental disorders are believed to develop when someone who has a preexisting vulnerability for that disorder experiences a major stressor - Diathesis: predisposition toward developing a disorder - Need a more proximal undesirable event to occur in combination with diathesis for disorders to occur: - Graph a: interactive model shows some amount of diathesis must be present 

3 Before stress will have any effect - Graph B: additive model of diathesis stress interaction - Protective factors: influences that modify person’s response - making adverse consequences less likely - can be positive or negative (response to medium amount of stress), or Inherent trait in the individual - Resilience: ability to successfully adapt to very difficult circumstances such as doing well in school when your parents are drug addicts - Diathesis stress models need to be considered in a broad framework of multi causal developmental models - To understand what is abnormal, one must always have a good understanding of normal human development at biological, psychological, and sociocultural levels of analysis (developmental psychopathology) - Animal models are useful here where you can create a diathesis and expose individuals to a stressor and test various treatments or supply a protective factor * perspectives for understanding the causes of abnormal behavior - Definition - Functions - Contemporary perspectives - Viewpoints: help professionals organize observations, provide systems of thought, and suggest areas of focus - Perspectives are theoretical constructions devised to orient psychologists in the study of abnormal behavior but it may cause psychologists to overlook other viewpoints

4 - Many theorists are pushing for a more integrative biopsychosocial viewpoint that acknowledges that biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment * biopsychosocial perspective - Integrative view - Interactionist perspective - Considers nature vs nurture interaction - Acknowledges that biological, psychological, social, cultural, and historical factors play a role in psychopathology and treatment - Traditional biological viewpoint focuses on mental disorders as diseases and gives little attention to social/environmental influences - Today many people holding this viewpoint acknowledge psychosocial and sociocultural causal factors play a role as well - We should consider these models in terms of multi-causal developmental frameworks - multi-causal developmental frameworks: in the course of development, a child may acquire a variety of risk factors that may interact to determine their risk for psychopathology - There are four categories of biological factors relevant to maladaptive behavior: 1. Genetic vulnerabilities 2. Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity 3. neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in brain & central nervous system 4. Temperament - Many conditions temporarily disrupt information processing capabilities of the brain

5 * genetic vulnerabilities - TRUE OR FALSE? - heredity is an important predisposing causal factor for a number of Disorders. - TRUE!!! - studies suggest that heredity is an important predisposing causal factor for A number of disorders  - abnormalities in the structure or number of chromosomes are associated With malfunctions and disorders; for example, down syndrome  - A typical human male has 23 pairs of chromosomes, including an X chromosome and the Y chromosome - Vulnerability to mental disorder is almost always polygenic - Polygenic: not coded for by one gene - Genes affect behavior indirectly - Personality traits and mental disorders are not affected by chromosomal abnormalities, but influenced by abnormalities in some genes on the chromosome or by naturally occurring variations of genes known as polymorphisms - Polymorphisms: different alleles; naturally occurring variations - Chromosomal basis of genotype: - each chromosome is a tightly coiled strand of DNA (chromatin) That has doubled for cell division - chromosomes are only visible prior to cell division when chromatin coils And then doubles into the visible X-like shape - gene: a small segment of DNA that codes for a specific amino acid  

6 * Genotype vs phenotype: - genotype: total genetic endowment - phenotype: observed structural and functional characteristics within a given environment * Genotype- environmental interactions: - genetic factors can contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop Psychopathology…. 1. PKU induced intellectual disability: - treatment: avoid phenylalanine to minimize brain damage 2. Genetic risk for depression - people have shown to be more likely to respond to stressful life Events by becoming depressed than are people without the genetic Risk factors who experience the same stressful life events * Genotype- environmental correlations - Individual’s genotype may shape environment in the following ways: - passive effect: resulting from the genetic similarity of parents and children (high IQ parents may provide a highly stimulating environment for their Child that will create an environment that will interact in a positive way With the child’s genetic endowment for high intelligence) - evocative effect: child’s phenotype may evoke particular kinds of reactions From social and physical environment (happy babies evoke more positive Responses from others than passive infants) - Active effect: child seeks out or builds environment that is congenial Which is a phenomenon known as “niche building” where extraverted children may seek the company of others, thereby enhancing their own tendencies to be social

7 * behavior genetics: methods for studying genetic influences - Origins: animal models, some still used today - Behavior genetics: the field that focuses on studying the heritability of mental disorders 1. Family history method (pedigree): observe samples of relatives of each proband or index case ( the subject, or carrier, of the trait or disorder in question) and compare incidence rate in family to rate in population 2. Twin method: compare rates of disorders in identical twins to rates in non-identical twins, expecting higher concordance rate (the percentage of twins sharing the disorder or trait) for monozygotic twins 3. Adoption method: compare adopted offspring with normal biological parents to offspring with biological parents with disorder to determine the rates of disorder * brain dysfunction and neural plasticity - True or false? 1. Subtle deficiencies of brain function are rarely implicated in mental disorders- FALSE 2. Genetic programs for brain development are not as rigid and deterministic as was once believed- TRUE, there is considerable neural plasticity-flexibility of the brain in making changes to organization and function in response to various experiences and stimuli - Developmental systems approach: genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment, but also that these influences are bidirectional  

8 * imbalances of neurotransmitter and hormones - Do you know how neurons communicate? - Neurons communicate by releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse - Synapse: tiny fluid-filled space between the axon endings of one neuron - Neurotransmitters: chemical substances that are released into the synapse by the pre synaptic neuron when a nerve impulse occurs - * review videos in butcher ch.3 powerpoint * - There are many neurotransmitters, some produce an impulse and others inhibit the impulse - The success of the neural message being transmitted depends on the concentration of certain neurotransmitters within the synapse - Neurotransmitter imbalances: - can result in abnormal behavior - created in various ways,such as: 1. Overproduction by presynaptic neurons 2. Deactivation at the synapse via reuptake or recycling of Nt’s 3. Post synaptic receptors may be abnormally sensitive or insensitive  - 5 most studied neurotransmitters: 1. Norepinephrine (NE) excitatory, monoamine 2. Dopamine (DA) excitatory, inhibitory monoamine 3. Serotonin (5HT) excitatory, inhibitory monoamine 4. Glutamate excitatory 5. Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) inhibitory - Monoamines: each is synthesized from a single amino acid - Hormones: chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands; affect risk of depression and PTSD; sex hormone imbalances can also cause problems

9 - Many forms of psychopathology are associated with neurotransmitter imbalances and altered receptor site sensitivity - Medications alter sensitivity of receptor sites, increase neurotransmitter production, or alter re-uptake or recycling of synaptic and postsynaptic neurotransmitters - AGONIST: Medications that facilitates effects of neurotransmitters on postsynaptic neurons - ANTAGONIST: medications that oppose or inhibit effects of neurotransmitters on postsynaptic neurons * hormonal imbalances - Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis: - messages in the form of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) travel from The hypothalamus to the pituitary gland - pituitary gland then releases adrenocorticotropic-releasing hormone (ACTH) Which stimulates cortical part of the adrenal gland, produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol (stress hormone, mobilizes the body to deal with Stress - cortisol provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary gland To decrease their release of CRH and ACTH, which in turn reduces the release of Adrenaline and cortisol ( the negative feedback system operates like a Thermostat does to regulate temperature) - Negative feedback loop: once cortisol is produced by the adrenal gland, cortisol tells hypothalamus to stop producing CRH and ACTH; when negative feedback loop malfunctions, there is an increased risk for depression and PTSD

10 - Pituitary gland: master gland of the body, producing a variety of hormones that regulate or control the other endocrine glands (such as the adrenal glands and gonads) * temperament - Temperament: a child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation (genetic ,unlearned, modifiable by environment, but only to a degree) - Early temperament is basis from which personality develops - Babies show differences in their characteristic emotional and arousal responses to various stimuli and in their tendency to approach, withdraw, or attend to various situations; some parts of temperament are stable at least through middle childhood - 5 dimensions of temperament: 1. Fearfulness 2. Irritability and frustration 3. Positive affect 4. Activity level 5. Attentional persistence and effortful control - related to three dimensions of adult personality: 1. Neuroticism (fearfulness and irritability) 2. Extraversion ( positive affect and activity level) 3. Constraint ( attentional persistence and effortful control) - therefore, temperament may be related to psychopathology later on in life (for example, hyper-active kids at risk for anxiety disorders later in life)    

11 * impact of biological viewpoint - Importance of biochemical factors and innate characteristics in both normal and abnormal behavior:  - simply establishing a biological basis for a disorder does little to Substantiate the diagnostic validity of a disorder, for normal and Abnormal behavior and cognition have a biological substrate - Effects of psychological events are always mediated through the central nervous system (CNS): - all psychological and impactful environmental events are mediated Through the CNS - Require multiple perspectives to fully understand abnormal and normal behavior: - therefore, biopsychosocial view is necessary for complete understanding * the psychological perspective - psychodynamic - Behavioral - Cognitive behavioral * the psychodynamic perspective - Freud theorized that a person’s personality, behavior, and cognitive processes result from the interaction of: - Id: pleasure principle - ego: reality principle  X childhood environment  - superego: executive branch - Ego: often deals with neurotic or moral anxiety by resorting to ego-defense mechanisms  

12 - ego defense mechanisms: 1. Displacement: discharging pent-up feelings, often of hostility, on objects Less dangerous than those arousing feelings (ex. A woman harassed by her boss At work initiates an argument with her husband) 2. Fixation: attaching oneself in an unreasonable or exaggerated way to some Person, or arresting emotional development on a childhood or adolescent Level (ex. An unmarried, middle-aged man still depends on his mother to Provide his basic needs) 3. Projection: attributing one’s unacceptable motives or characteristics to Others (ex. An expansionist-minded dictator of a totalitarian state is Convinced that neighboring countries are planning to invade) 4. Rationalization: using contrived explanations to conceal or disguise Unworthy motives for one’s behavior (ex. A fanatical racist uses ambiguous Passages from the scriptures to justify his hostile actions toward minorities) 5. Reaction formation: preventing the awareness or expression of unacceptable Desires by an exaggerated adoption of seemingly opposite behavior (ex. A man Troubled by homosexual urges initiates a zealous community campaign to Stamp out gay bars) 6. Regression: retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less Mature behavior and responsibility (ex. A man with shattered self-esteem Reverts to childlike “showing off” and exhibits his genitals to young girls) 7. Repression: preventing painful or dangerous thoughts from entering Consciousness (ex. A mother’s occasional murderous impulses toward her Hyperactive two year old are denied access to awareness) 8. Sublimation: channeling frustrated sexual energy into substitutive activities (ex. A sexually frustrated artist paints wildly erotic pictures)

13 - Psychosexual stages of development: - id, ego, & superego develop sequentially during these 5 stages - freud conceptualized 5 psychosexual stages of development: 1. Oral stage (ages 0 to 2): sucking is dominant pleasure, a process needed For feeding 2. Anal stage (ages 2 to 3): anus provide major stimulation during toilet training 3. phallic stage (ages 3 to 5 or 6): self manipulation of the genitals provides The major source of pleasurable sensation 4. Latency period (ages 6 to 12): sexual motivations recede in importance as A child becomes preoccupied with developing skills  5. Genital stage (after puberty): the deepest feelings of pleasure come from Sexual relations - each stage is characterized by a dominant mode of achieving sexual pleasure - appropriate gratification during each stage is important if a person is to Avoid being stuck or fixated - Oedipus or electra complex during phallic stage: - oedipus complex: castration anxiety; id has unconscious primitive sexual desire For oppposite sex parent and unconscious, primitive hatred for same sex parent - electra complex: penis envy; ego resolves these complexes of conflicts via Identification with same-sex parent and this leads to formation of superego - Problems with psychodynamic perspective: - Can not develop falsifiable hypotheses - based on atypical clinical population - theory that can explain everything, explains nothing (ex. Fixation resulting From excessive or insufficient gratification of needs)

14 - Usefulness from psychodynamic perspective: - acceptance of unconscious mental processes - importance of childhood events on adult personality and functioning - acceptance of sexuality is important throughout life - Newer psychodynamic perspectives: - anna freud’s ego psychology: pathology develops when the ego does not Function adequately to control or delay impulse gratification or does not Make adequate use of defense mechanisms when faced with internal conflicts - melanie klein’s object relations theory: focus on individual’s interactions With real and imagined other people (external and internal objects) Symbolically incorporates into their personality - Interpersonal perspective: emphasis on social and cultural determinants of behavior , includes erikson’s psychosocial theory in which he described Conflicts that occurred at 8 stages and that each could be resolved in a Healthy or unhealthy way -bowlby’s attachment theory: stresses importance of secure attachment Formation for healthy adult relationships; adler’s basic inferiority; horney’s Basic anxiety * the behavioral perspective - What provides the central theme of the behavioral approach? -learning: the modification of behavior as a consequence of experience - Classical conditioning: the process of a specific stimulus eliciting a specific response     

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 - If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, extinction will eventually occur - Operant conditioning: new responses are learned and tend to reoccur if they are reinforced (ex. A child who gets candy when he whines ay learn to whine) - Conditioned avoidance response may occur in situations in which a subject has been conditioned to anticipate an aversive event and so consistently avoids those situations - Generalization: response is conditioned to one stimulus and can be evoked by other similar stimuli - Discrimination: learning to distinguish between similar stimuli - Observationa...