PSYC 3390 | Book Notes on Ch.3 - \"Causal Factors and Viewpoints\" PDF

Preview

Summary

Book: Abnormal Psychology (17th Edition) by: James N. Butcher, Matthew K. Nock, Jill M. Hooley

Chapter 3 - "Causal Factors and Viewpoints"

Professor: R. Sinacola...

Description

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

PSYC 3390 | CH.3 - “Causal Factors & Viewpoints” Risk Factors & Causes of Abnormal Behavior ➡ We can learn about relationships among variables by observing them & measuring the extent to which 2 variables or events co-occur (i.e., co-vary or correlate). !

➡ First step, is to observe what variables are associated w/ such outcomes. ! • A variable (X) that is associated w/ an outcome of interest (Y) is considered to be a correlate of that outcome. !

- EX: the experience of physical abuse during childhood (X) is associated w/ greater risk of depression later in life (Y), so abuse is said to be correlated w/ depression. !

- Just knowing that 2 things are correlated DOESN’T tell you if 1 caused the other !

• If ONLY X is shown to precede Y in time can we infer that X is a risk factor for Y. !

- It is a factor or characteristic that is associated w/ an increased risk of developing condition Y. !

• Variable Risk Factor: if X can be changed, making it a variable risk factor for outcome Y. !

• Fixed Marker: if X cannot be changed, it’s considered a fixed marker of outcome Y. !

• Variable Marker: if changing X does NOT lead to a change in Y. ! - For causality, X would be considered a variable marker of Y, since changing X did not lead to a change in Y. !

• Causal Risk Factor: changing X lead to a change in Y. ! - X is considered to be a causal risk factor for condition Y. ! 1

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

➡ Necessary, Sufficient, & Contributory Causes ! • Necessary Cause: (X) is a characteristic that must exist for a disorder (Y) to occur. !

- EX: ! ‣ General paresis (Y) — a degenerative brain disorder— cannot develop unless a person has previously contracted syphilis (X). !

‣ If Y occurs, then X must have preceded it. ! • Sufficient Cause: is a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorders. !

- EX: ! ‣ 1 current theory hypothesizes that hopelessness (X) is a sufficient cause of depression (Y). !

‣ If X occurs, then Y will also occur. ! ‣ According to this theory, if you are hopeless enough about your future, then you will become depressed. !

• Contributory Causes: is one that increases the probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur. !

- If X occurs, then the probability of Y occurring increases. ! - EX: ! ‣ Parental rejection could increase the probability that a child will later have difficulty in handling close personal relationships OR could increase the probability that being rejected in a relationship in adulthood will precipitate depression. !

‣ Parental rejection could be a contributory cause for the person’s later difficulties, but it’s neither necessary nor sufficient. !

• Distal Risk Factors: some causal factors occurring relatively early in life & may not show their effects for many years that may contribute to a predisposition to develop a disorder. !

- EX: ! 2

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Abnormal Psychology

Sunday, February 14, 2021

‣ Loss of a parent early in life, OR having abusive OR neglectful parents as a child or adolescent, may serve as a distal contributory cause predisposing a person to depression or antisocial behaviors later in life. !

• Proximal Risk Factors: other factors that operate shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a disorder. !

- Sometimes may be a condition that proves too much for a child or adult & triggers the onset of a disorder. !

- EX: Proximal factors that could lead to depression! ‣ A crushing disappointment at school OR work ! ‣ Severe difficulties w/ a school friend OR a marital partner ! ‣ Death of a parent ! - Proximal factors might involve: ! ‣ Biological changes! - Damage to certain parts of the left hemisphere of the brain; leading to depression. !

• Reinforcing Contributory Cause: is a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring. !

- EX: ! ‣ Extra attention/sympathy/relief from unwanted responsibility that may come when a person is ill. !

‣ When a depressed person’s behavior alienates friends & family, leading to a greater sense of rejection that reinforces the existing depression. !

➡ Feedback & Bidirectionality in Abnormal Behavior ! • Cause-&-Effect relationships: has focused on isolating the condition X (cause) that can be demonstrated to lead to condition Y (effect). !

• Causal Pattern: when more than 1 casual factor is involved. ! - Conditions A, B, C & so on, lead to condition Y. !

3

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

- Follows a simple linear model in which a given variable OR set of variables leads to a result either immediately or later. !

- In the behavioral sciences, often have difficulty distinguishing between what is a cause & what is an effect. !

‣ Because effects can serve as feedback that can in turn influence that causes. !

‣ The effects of feedback & the existence of mutual, 2-way (bidirectional) influences must be taken into account. !

➡ Diathesis—Stress Models

(on page 63)!

• Diathesis—Stress Models: Many mental disorders are believed to develop when someone who has a preexisting vulnerability for that disorder experiences a major stressor.!

• Diathesis (or vulnerability): is a predisposition toward developing a disorder than can derive from biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors. !

- The diathesis results from 1 or more relatively distal necessary or contributory causes, but is generally NOT sufficient to cause the disorder. !

• Stress: the response or experience of an individual to demands that he or she perceives as taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources. !

- Often occurs when an individual experiences chronic or episodic events that are undesirable & lead to behavioral, physiological, & cognitive accommodations. !

• Instead, there must be a more proximal factor (the stressor), which may also be contributory or necessary but is generally not sufficient by itself to cause the disorder except in someone with the diathesis.!

• It is important to note that factors contributing to the development of a diathesis are themselves sometimes highly potent stressors.!

- EX: ! ‣ As when a child experiences the death of a parent & may thereby acquire a predisposition OR diathesis for becoming depressed later in life. ! 4

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Abnormal Psychology

Sunday, February 14, 2021

• A diathesis & stress may combine to produce a disorder. ! • Additive Model: the diathesis & the stress sum together, & when 1 is high the other can be low, & vice versa. !

- A person w/ no diathesis or a very low level of diathesis could still develop a disorder when faced w/ truly severe stress. !

• Interactive Model: some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect. !

- Someone w/ NO diathesis will never develop the disorder, no matter how much stress he or she experiences, whereas someone w/ the diathesis will demonstrate an increasing likelihood of developing the disorder w/ increasing levels of stress. !

• More complex models are also possible because diatheses often exist on a continuum, ranging from zero to high levels. !

• Protective Factors: decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes among those at risk. !

- Is NOT simply the absence of a risk factor, but instead is something ! - Are NOT necessarily positive experiences. ! - Sometimes exposure to stressful experiences that are dealt w/ successfully can promote a sense of self-confidence or self-esteem & thereby serve as a protective factor. !

- Some stressors paradoxically promote coping. ! - This “steeling” OR “inoculation” effect is more likely to occur w/ moderate stressors than w/ mild or extreme stressors. !

- Some protective factors have nothing to do w/ experiences at all but are simply some quality OR attribute of a person.!

‣ EX: ! - Adolescents who score high on emotional intelligence are less likely to show negative outcomes following childhood abuse. !

- Most often, but NOT always, lead to resilience. !

5

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

• Resilience: the ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances. !

- EX: ! ‣ The child who perseveres & does well in school despite his or her parents’ drug addiction or physical abuse. !

• Multi-causal Developmental Models: in the course of development a child may acquire a variety of cumulative risk factors that may interact to determine his or her risk for psychopathology. !

• To understand what is abnormal, one must always have a good understanding of normal human development at biological, psychological, and sociocultural levels of analysis. !

• Developmental Psychopathology: concentrates on determining what is abnormal at any point in development by comparing & contrasting it w/ the normal & expected changes that occur in the course of development. !

- EX: ! ‣ An intense fear of the dark in a 3-5 year old child may not be considered abnormal, given that most children have at least 1 specific fear that they bring into early adolescence. !

‣ However, an intense fear of the dark that causes considerable distress & avoidance behavior in a high school or college-age student would be considered a phobia. !

Perspectives to Understanding the Causes of Abnormal Behavior ➡ Biological Perspective ! - Genetics, ! - Neurobiology, ! - Hormonal responses! • These can influence psychopathology, a strategy that has become increasingly common in recent years. ! 6

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

➡ Psychological perspective ! • How dysfunctional thoughts, feelings, & behaviors can lead to psychopathology. ! ➡ Sociocultural perspective ! • How social & cultural factors can influence the way that we think about abnormal behavior.!

➡ Biopsychosocial Viewpoint: acknowledges that biological, psychological, & social factors all interact & play a role in psychopathology & treatment. !

The Biological Perspective ➡ The traditional biological viewpoint focuses on mental disorders as diseases, many of the primary symptoms of which are cognitive, emotional, or behavioral. !

➡ Mental disorders are viewed as disorders of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and/or the endocrine system that are either inherited or caused by some pathological process. !

➡ The disorders 1st recognized as having biological OR organic components were those associated w/ gross destruction of brain tissue.!

• These disorders are neurological diseases—that is, they result from the disruption of brain functioning by physical OR biochemical means & often involve psychological or behavioral aberrations.!

- EX: ! ‣ Damage to certain areas in the brain can cause memory loss. ! ‣ Damage to the left hemisphere that occurs during strokes can cause depression. !

➡ Most mental disorders are NOT caused by neurological damage per se. ! • EX: ! - Abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems in the brain can lead to mental disorders w/out causing damage to the brain. !

• The bizarre content of delusions & other abnormal mental states like hallucinations can never be caused simply & directly by brain damage. !

7

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

- The content of such delusions must be the by-product of some sort of functional integration of different neural structures, some of which have been “programmed” by personality & learning based on past experience. !

➡ 4 Categories of Biological Factors: ! - (1) Genetic Vulnerabilities ! - (2) Brain Dysfunction & Neural Plasticity ! - (3) Neurotransmitter & Hormonal Abnormalities in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system !

- (4) Temperament ! • Each of these categories encompasses a # of conditions that influence the quality & functioning of our bodies & our behavior. !

➡ Genetic Vulnerabilities ! • Genes: are very long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are present at various locations on chromosomes. !

- Are the carriers of the information that we inherit from our parents. ! - DON’T fully determine whether a person develops a mental disorder ! • Chromosomes: are the chain-like structures w/in a cell nucleus that contain the genes. !

- 23 pairs of chromosomes in each human cell (46 total) containing genetic materials that encode the hereditary plan for each individual. !

- Sex chromosomes determines the individual’s sex. • Alleles: each gene exists in 2 or more alternate forms. ! • Some of these genetic influences, such as broad temperamental features, are 1st apparent in newborns & children. !

- EX: ! ‣ Some children are just naturally more shy or anxious. ! ‣ Other children may be more outgoing. !

8

Abnormal Psychology

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Sunday, February 14, 2021

• Research in developmental genetics has shown that abnormalities in the structure or # of chromosomes can be associated w/ major defects or disorders.!

- EX: ! ‣ Down syndrome ! • Personality traits & mental disorders are NOT affected by chromosomal abnormalities per se.!

- Polymorphisms: often influenced either by abnormalities in some of the genes on the chromosomes or by naturally occurring variations of genes. !

• Polygenic: vulnerabilities to mental disorders are (almost always) influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes, w/ any 1 gene having only very small effects. !

- EX: ! ‣ A genetically vulnerable person has usually inherited a large number of genes, or polymorphisms of genes, that operate together in an additive or interactive fashion to increase vulnerability. !

• Gene “expression” is normally not a simple outcome of the information encoded in DNA but is, rather, the end product of an intricate process that may be influenced by the internal (e.g., intrauterine) & external environment. !

• THE RELATIONSHIP OF GENOTYPES TO PHENOTYPES ! - Genotype: a person’s total genetic endowment. ! ‣ Except for identical twins, NO 2 humans ever begin life w/ the same genetic makeup. !

- Phenotype: the observed structural & functional characteristics that result from an interaction of the genotype & the environment. !

• GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS ! - Genotype-Environment Interaction: genetic factors can contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop psychopathology that only happens if there is a significant stressor in the person’s life. !

‣ EX: ! 9

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Abnormal Psychology

Sunday, February 14, 2021

- PKU-induced intellectual disability ! - People at genetic risk for depression! • GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS ! - Genes can actually shape the environmental experiences a child has, thus affecting the phenotype in important ways. !

‣ EX: ! - A child who is genetically predisposed to aggressive behavior may be rejected by his/her peers in early grades due to their aggressive behavior. !

- Genotype-Environment Correlation: when the genotype shapes the environmental experiences a child has in this way. !

‣ This is a phenomenon ! ‣ (1) The child’s genotype may have what has been termed a passive effect on the environment, resulting from the genetic similarity of parents and children.!

- EX: Highly intelligent parents may provide a highly stimulating environment for their child, creating an environment that’ll interact in a positive way w/ the child’s genetic endowment for high intelligence. !

- EX: parents who exhibit antisocial behavior tend to create a risky environment characterized by family dysfunction, thereby increasing the probability of certain mental disorders in their children !

‣ (2) The child’s genotype may evoke particular kinds of reactions from the social and physical environment— a so-called evocative effect.!

- EX: Active, happy babies evoke more positive responses from others than do passive, unresponsive infants. !

‣ (3) The child’s genotype may play a more active role in shaping the environment—a so-called active effect.!

10

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Abnormal Psychology

Sunday, February 14, 2021

- “Niche Building” = the child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial. !

- EX: extraverted children may seek the company of others, enhancing their own tendencies to be sociable. !

• METHODS FOR STUDYING GENETIC INFLUENCES ! - Behavior Genetics: the field that focuses on studying the heritability of mental disorders (as well as other aspects of psychological functioning). !

‣ (1) The Family History method ‣ (2) The Twin method ! ‣ (3) The Adoption method ! - Family History (or pedigree) Method: requires that an investigator observe samples of relatives of each proband or index case to see whether the incidence increases in proportion to the degree of hereditary relationship. !

‣ Proband or Index Case is the subject, or carrier, of the trait or disorder in question. !

‣ In addition, the incidence of the disorder in a normal population is compared (as a control) w/ its incidence among the relatives of the index cases. !

‣ Main limitation = people who are more closely related genetically also tend to share more similar environments, making it difficult to disentangle genetic & environmental effects. !

- Twin Method: the 2nd approach used to study genetic influences on abnormal behavior. !

‣ Identical (monozygotic) twins share the same genetic endowment because they develop from a single zygote, or fertilized egg. !

‣ Concordance Rate: the percentage of twins sharing the disorder or trait. !

- 100% if a given disorder or trait were completely heritable !

11

Tu / Th 1:00pm - 2:15pm

Abnormal Psychology

Sunday, February 14, 2021

- If 1 identical twin had a particular disorder, the other twin would as well. !

- Concordance rates are much lower for nonidentical twins than for identical twins. !

‣ Dizygotic twins develop from 2 different fertilized eggs. ! - DON’T share any more genes than do siblings from the same parents. !

- Concordance rates for a disorder to be much lower for dizygotic (DZ) than for monozygotic (MZ) twins if the disorder had a strong genetic component.!

- Adoption Method: the 3rd method used to study genetic influences, capitalizes on the fact that adoption creates a situation in which individuals who do not share a common family environment are nonetheless genetically related. !

‣ The biological parents of individuals who have a given disorder (& who were adopted away shortly after birth) are compared w/ the biological parents of individuals w/out the disorder (who also were adopted awa...