Psyc 360 Midterm 1 Notes PDF

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Psyc 360 Midterm 1 Notes
Professor David Schwartz, Ph.D...

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PSYCHOLOGY 360 Review for First Midterm General Comments  100 questions, 77% MC Chapters 1 through 4 will be on the midterm. This summary sheet will help you to identify the important areas to emphasize in your studying. However, except for material that I specifically tell you to ignore, ANYTHING from the lectures or textbook is fair game. Material that is included in both the lecture and the text is certain to be well represented on the midterm. Topic 1: Introduction and Historical Roots (Chapter 1) Important 1. Different ways of defining abnormal behavior o Abnormal behavior- psychopathology, psychiatric problem, emotion disorder, problems in daily living, mental illness, crazy o statistical infrequency o violation of norms o personal distress o distress to others o disability or dysfunction- impairment in some important area of life o unexpectedness 2. Wakefield’s notion of “Harmful dysfunction” o dysfunction- a trait fails to optimally perform the specific function that it was evolutionary designed to perform  when something doesn’t do what it was designed to do as a result of natural selection o harmful- a social judgment that a dysfunction is undesirable o abnormality is implied when a dysfunction is viewed as harmful by a society 3. Mental health professionals (social workers, psychiatrists, psychologists) o Clinical psychologists- hold a PhD or PsyD  4 years of grad school, 1 year clinical internship, 1 year post doctoral placement  expertise in diagnosis, treatment, testing  only profession licensed for testing o Psychiatrist  completed medical school, completed a psychiatric residency  expertise in diagnosis, treatment, and medical interventions  the only mental health professional qualified to prescribe o Social workers  have completed a MSW with additional training in psychiatric issues

 expertise in treatment, often with a strong background in group and family therapy o Marriage and Fam therapists/ counselors/ mental health workers  have a variety of degrees (MFCC, BA, MA)  exact qualifications vary across setting 4. History of psychopathology o Demonology and superstition  Doctrine that an evil spirit can dwell within a person and control their mind/body o The Somatogenic Perspective Bodily origins movement, has roots in Hippocrates Hippocrates- first chemical model: bodily fluids are associated with disorder  separated religion from medicine  thought brain disorders were indications of brain pathology. First to say something wrong with the brain disturbs thought and action  first idea that chemistry predicts mental disorder  Kreaepelin later influenced by Hippocrates o The Dark Ages  Many mental disorders seen as character problems; influence of Satan; Catholic Church. At the end of 13/14 centuries.  Huge hospitals at the outskirts/ separated from the city that are no longer needed (from leprosy)  return to a belief in supernatural causes of psychological disorders o The Asylum Movement  Old leprosy hospitals were converted to asylums- refuges for housing people with psychological disorders  First asylums are inhumane places. Big hospitals, where people are essentially treated like animals. Aligns with feudalism  French revolution: emergence of a focus on individual rights  Backlash against this warehousing of people in facilities o Moral treatment  Philip Pinel – led this backlash in Europe: attempted to reform hospitals for more humane treatment (mainly of the upper class, not lower)  Direct result of French revolution o The Mental Hygiene Movement  Dorothy Dix – when it spread to U.S.  Humane treatment in small facilities  failed because the training and skills were not up to par 5. Emil Kraepelin (there will definitely be several questions about Kraepelin and his influence) o the return of the Somatogenic perspective (Hippocrates)  

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o wrote first psychiatry textbook and classification system o his basic assumptions: all disorders are distinct  Ex- if you have depression AND schizophrenia, they are completely different and unrelated  all disorders have a unique biological cause  clinical diagnosis is based on careful observation o DSM is a neo-Kraepelin and includes all the assumptions 6. Other names that are may show up on the midterm might include Mesmer, Charcot, Pinel, Dix o Pinel and Dix advocated for more humane treatment of the mentally ill  ex- monarchies didn’t treat sick people correctly  French revolution overthrows the monarchy and tells the rest of the world that people have rights o Rise of the psychogenic perspective  Hysteria emerges as a major mental health problem  loss of physical functioning without cause  had a lot of emotionality usually correlated with it  Mesmer uses a series of bizarre interventions, some of which are related to hypnotism as a cure  not much of a scientist  Jean Martin Charcot conducts more scientific studies of hypnotism  came after Mesmer and was much more scientific  when he found under hypnosis women talked about their issues, their hysteria went away  both had very little influence on the field Not important 1. I will not test you on specific dates, nor am I likely to ask you questions about theorists who are not listed on this review sheet. 2. You do not need to understand the concept of “dual relationships” for the first midterm. 

Topic 2: Paradigms (Chapter 2 as well as parts of Chapter 1) Important 1. Make sure you understand Thomas Kuhn’s notion of paradigms. o Thomas Kuhn- The Structure of Scientific Revolutions o Paradigms guide all scientific inquiry and thought in a particular area o A paradigm is a guiding set of assumptions, theories, and methods o According to Kuhn, paradigms guide the way you think, questions you ask, way you go about

everything’ if you work from other paradigm you’re considered a heretic (disagree with what is accepted); to have power and prestige in the field you have to work within the dominant paradigm o Fall of a paradigm  When a paradigm fails to explain phenomena, a period of crisis occurs. The paradigm falls and is replaced by a new paradigm. A new paradigm emerges and guides all thinking in the area. This new paradigm emerges and guides all thinking in the area. This paradigm will remain dominant until a new crisis occurs. 2. The psychodynamic/Freudian paradigm o every human being is sick- everyone has a conflict between their psychic structures- built in to you o Freud thought that personality and disorder were one in the same o much of human behavior is determined by forces that are inaccessible to awareness o A hydraulic model with life energy (libido) flowing between different structures o libido- life force, you come into the world with instinctual energy- psychodynamic theory o The concept of psychodynamics is the interplay and conflict between these structures  Freud was influenced by Darwin (drives) o We have an instinctual drives- libido a. ID  “Lets have fun”  unchecked instinct, instinctual drive, focused on it’s own needs and drives, ruled by pleasure, present since birth  doesn’t tolerate frustration, engages in primary process thinking  libido- the source of the ID’s energy, it is an unconscious energy (unaware) b. Ego  “let’s be practical”  your understanding of reality, internalization of the constraints of the REAL world  develops in second 6 months of life  mediates between the impulses of the ID and the demands of the situation c. Super ego  “let’s do what is right”  functions as a conscience- judger, punisher, morality, right and wrong  doesn’t fully develop until end of childhood, this means kids are incapable of being depressed d. Freud’s stages of development  There are struggles at different stages of your life (oral, anal, phallic), and childhood matters for the rest of your life (Freud first to say this)  Conflicts occur between drives of the ID (libidinal energy) at each stage of development, and if conflict is not resolved, the energy is “fixated”

if you do not resolve all the conflicts of a certain stage, then you will have problems later in life  the ID, ego, and superego are fighting throughout development and how these conflicts settle during childhood determine your functioning through life.  Freud- we are not always aware of what motivates us, happens at subconscious level  psychology can result from a person’s anxiety regarding subconscious ID impulses  If you want to see the ID- use dreams, ink blots, and free association e. neuroses, defense mechanisms o a strategy used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety 

o ex- repression, rationalization, sublimation, denial 3. The behavioral paradigm o Focuses on observable behavior rather than consciousness or mental functioning o classical conditioning Pavlovs dog  food (unconditioned stimulus) -> salivation (unconditioned response)  ring bell (conditioned stimulus) when food is present, then dog learns to salivate (conditioned responses) when bell is rung  Learning a new behavior via association. Two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response.  unconditioned response- stimulus produces response without any learning operant conditioning  Law of effect- behavior followed by satisfying consequences will be repeated, and negative will be discouraged  BF Skinner coined term. Means changing behavior by the use of reinforcement  escape conditioning and negative reinforcement are the same thing different types of reinforcement  Positive reinforcement- desirable outcomes or rewards  negative reinforcement - deletion of a negative stimuli, making pain go away.  ex- aspirin relieving headache  Called escape conditioning- a behavior that allows an individual to escape from a negative situation will be learned. Ex- pet runs away when he knows he is in trouble  Punishment- addition of a negative stimuli  ex- speeding ticket for driving fast modeling  learning by watching the Law of Effect- Edward Thorndike (operant conditioning) 

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behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated.

Behavior that is followed by unpleasant consequences will be discontinued.  influence on skinner 4. The cognitive paradigm  actively organize information, people are not a blank slate, 2 people respond to same experience in different ways  Cognition- mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning  regard people as active interpreters of a situation, with people’s past knowledge imposing a perceptual funnel on experience  Cognitive paradigm holds that humans learn o doesn’t have place for emotion, moves us back into considering internal process o extremely effective therapies, even though schemas are not directly observable, their concept allows us to test in lab o fall of cognitive paradigm- technology  Schemas- higher order cognitive structures, a cognitive set  sensory information -> unconscious activation of schema -> automatic processing of information -> involuntary cognitions, emotions, behaviors  you don’t just experience things, you actively learn things/form schemas  5. The biological paradigm o information in your brain travels by electricity, neurotransmitters etc. o Reductionism is a problem with this paradigm because when you break things down to it’s parts, then it loses function o Neuron damage is heritable, biological theorist would image brain, and neurochemicals in blood, and look at family history o behavior genetics  The study to the degree in which genes and environmental factors influence behavior  Family method- compare members of a family, see if behavioral similarities is related to genetic similarity  Adoption studies- find siblings who were adopted and grew up separately, and see how similar they are in terms of diagnosis  Twin method- MZ are genetically identical, DZ share 50%. Compare the degree to MZ v DZ both have the same sorts of disorder b. biochemistry  biochemical model- information in the body is transmitted thorugh neurochemical activity  pathology is a result of broken neurochemical activity 6. Diathesis- stress o Abnormal behavior is a product of an interaction between a diathesis (inherent vulnerability,

or predisposition toward disease) and a stressor. Both vulnerability and stressor must be present for person to experience abnormal outcome. o integrative model that integrates cross paradigms, could be conceptualized within different paradigms, helps different paradigms work together o ex- genetic vulnerability (biological paradigm) interacts with reinforcement history (behavioral paradigm) to produce pathology Not important 1. Please do not memorize specific parts of the central nervous system 2. You do not need to know about any forms of psychodynamic theory beyond Freud- don’t know stages of development 3. You do not need to know about paradigms we did not discuss in class 4. There will be no questions about the specific of particular therapies Topic 3: Diagnosis and classification (Chapter 3) Important 1. Understand what the DSM and ICD are, and how the two systems are related. o Diagnostic Statistical Manual is the most influential diagnostic system for abnormal behavior in North America. o IDC (International Categorization of Diseases) is in the most of the world, produced by the UN health agency o 2 systems are evolving to become more similar 2. The history of the DSM: How DSM evolved from DSM I through DSM 5. o Psychodynamic paradigm (not very scientific) o DSM 1 and II were organized according to Freudian Psychoanalytic theory  had sections neuroses (id ego and super ego conflict and interfere with daily living) and psychoses (conflict is so great it causes you to lose touch with reality).  not very reliable or influential o DSM III is a return to ideas first introduced by Kraepelin o DSM III and IV were essentially modified versions of Kraepelin’s textbook o Assumptions of Neo-Kraepelinian Paradigm- DSM III/IV  diagnoses should be based on careful clinical observation- not theory  each disorder is unique diagnostic entity  individuals with the same disorder, should have similar symptoms o Basis for classification in DSM III/IV  diagnostic categories derived primarily based on observation. Symptoms that co-occur together and identify a coherent problem are viewed a disorder  Etiology (cause) is NOT a criteria, not important 3. The difference between Axis I and Axis II on DSM III/DSM IV.

o Axis 1- acute mental illness, all diagnoses with the exception of personality disorders and mental retardation  major depression, PTSD  assumes disorder is disease like state/something that happens to healthy organism o Axis II- chronic, long-standing psychopathology, resulting from personality functioning difficulties. Ex- Personality disorders and mental retardation.  antisocial personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder  assumes that disorder and personality are one in the same 4. Understand the basic differences between DSM 5 and DSM III/DSM IV. What has changed? o DSM III/IV is replaced by a single axis (DSM 5), to be more like a branch of medicine o DSM 5 is a move toward diagnosis based on etiology o Disorders that were in the same category in DSM III/IV because they looked similar (symptoms) may be moved into different categories in the DSM 5 if they are presumes to have different etiologies o DSM 5  step toward the “diseasification” of mental disorder.  an attempt to frame the classification of abnormal behavior firmly within the medical model.  Mental disorders are to be viewed like any other problem that doctors treat  defines diagnoses on the basis of symptoms 5. Criticisms and limitations of DSM o Too many diagnoses- comorbidity- the presence of a second diagnosis o risk factors can be associated to trigger more than one disorder o diagnoses are based on categorical classification- all or none 6. Reliability o the extend to which something is free of error o inter-rater reliability- agreement between observers or raters that a phenomenon has occurred o reliability of DSM is every day life is lower than in research studies, because there is some room for disagreement 7. Validity o The degree to which a category is an accurate reflection of reality. Have I measured what I say I measured. o certain categories of the DSM have less validity than others 8. The relation between reliability and validity o reliability doesn’t require validity, but validity requires reliability o reliability doesn’t imply validity

o validity implies reliability 9. dimensional vs. categorical conceptualizations of abnormal behavior o Categorical conceptualization is all or none, you either have a disorder or you don’t o A dimensional model assumes that a problem is distributed along a continuum with people having more or less of the relevant symptoms o culture shapes the way we categorize o categories forces loss of information 10. The role of culture in the DSM o everything is driven by your cultural perspective o Chinese KARRO- fear that your appendages are going to disappear in your body o all measurement devices/thinking about pathology is culturally related o clinicians are cautioned not to diagnose symptoms unless they are atypical and problematic within that person’s cultures Not Important 1. The details about specific disorders and categories.

Topic 4: Assessment (second half of Chapter 3) Important 1. Clinical interviews o First step in gathering information, can be influenced by clinician’s theoretical orientation, can be structured (specific questions in specific way) or unstructured (ask any questions) o Interview is about more than questions, it is about any behavior that happens o DSM 5 reliability is assessed with structured interviews 2. Objective tests, personality inventories o Structured questionnaires or inventories, you do not interpret the responses o questions that tap different classes of symptoms of personality attributes. A profile of a person’s scores on each type of attribute can then be produced o whether you answer T/F is not up for interpretation 3. Projective tests o Involve ambiguous stimuli that an individual is asked to interpret o proactive hypothesis- because the stimulus isn’t structured, a person’s responses will be based on subconscious processes (response driven by ID) o ex- Rorscharch ink block 4. MMPI, Rorschach o MMPI is objective- participant either picks true or false, no room for subjectivity  personality inventory

o Rorscharch is projective- responds however they want 5. Intelligence tests o include a series of tasks that are designed to assess a variety of domains of cognitive functioning o used to help assess whether a person has an intellectual disability (mental retardation) o Weschler and Stanford-Binet o IQ is a scored derived from intelligence tests, they are highly reliable and have good validity 6. Neuropsychological Tests o neurological- pet scan, MMri, use medical procedures to image brain structure o neuropsychological- structured tasks that assess basic cognitive skills- memory, sensory processing, eye-hand coordination, reasoning 7. Reliability, validity, cultural fairness o cultural bias in assessment refers to the notion that a measure developed for one culture may not be equally reliable and valid with a different cultural group Not Important 1. Any assessment approaches not discussed in class 2. Specific MMPI subscales 3. Brain imaging techniques. 4. Other forms of biological assessment Topic 5: Research Methods (Chapter 4) Important 1. The scientific method  Seeking knowledge through the generation and testing of hypotheses.  Good science- testable hypotheses, clear and precise hypotheses, replicable results, informed by past research, and driven by theory 2. Case studies  it is a collection of detailed biographical info  Describing a new or rare phenomena, or new method of treatment. Useful if you describe something new that no one has heard before  Disconfirming aspects of phenomena that are thought to be universal o Cowchilla bus- people showed PTST even though it was thought that kids couldn’t experience PTSD  facilitating development of hypotheses  Limitations- it involves a small...