Psych 106 PDF

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Psych 106Introduction to the psychological sciences Developmental PsychologyTruth or Fiction? Popular Psychology Knowledge -Most people use only about 10% of their brain capacity -All people w/dyslexia see words backward (tac-cat) -The more people present at an emergency, the more likely it is that ...

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Psych 106 Introduction to the psychological sciences Developmental Psychology Truth or Fiction? Popular Psychology Knowledge -Most people use only about 10% of their brain capacity -All people w/dyslexia see words backward (tac-cat) -The more people present at an emergency, the more likely it is that at least one of them will help. -All effective psychotherapies require clients to get the root of their problems in childhood Psychology as a Science What is Psychology? • Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes . • The mind refers to our private inner experience. • Behaviour refers to observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals, the things that we do in the world, by ourselves or with others. • Psychology Is an empirical science: Psychological science relies on empirical evidence, confirmed by observation or experience, as a way of knowing about how we think, feel, and behave. What is a Theory? • A theory is a general set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related • A theory allows you to • propose reasons for relationships • derive explanations • make predictions What Do Psychologists Do? • Research • Basic or Applied • Practice (clinical, counselling) • Teaching Fields of Psychology • Clinical • Counselling • School • Educational • Developmental • Personality • Social • Environmental • Experimental • Industrial • Health • Sport • Forensic • Cognitive • Neuropsychology

Developmental Psychology • The study of continuity and change across the lifespan • Continuity? • Change? Fundamental Issues in Developmental Psychology • Nature-Nurture • Stasis/Stability vs Instability/Change • Continuity –Discontinuity • What can we learn from such inquiry? • How might such knowledge be applied? Clinical vignette • You are conducting an initial interview with a mother who has brought her daughter into a child guidance clinic: • “She has always been a sensitive child and a loner, but I thought she was getting along all right-except that recently she has started having some really strange ideas. The other day we were driving on the highway to town, and she said, “I could make all these cars wreck if I just raised my hand.” I thought she was joking but she had a serious expression on her face and wasn’t even looking at me. Another time she wanted to go outside when the weather was bad, and she got furious at me because I didn’t make it stop raining. And now she’s started pleading and pleading with me every night to look in on her after she has gone to sleep to be sure her leg isn’t hanging over the side of the bed. She says there is some kind of crab creature in the dark waiting to grab her if her foot touches the floor. What worries me is that she believes all these things can really happen. I don’t know if she’s crazy or watching too much T.V. or what’s going on.” What questions would you seek to answer and why? • Age of child • History of family psychological function • Environmental contribution Four Goals of Developmental Psychology ● Describe Example: When do children say their first words? ● Explain Example: How do children learn to use language? ● Predict Example: Will delayed language development affect speech? ● Modify / Influence Example: Can therapy help speech delays? Domains of Development: • Physical Development • Body, brain, senses, motor skills, & health • Cognitive Development • Learning, memory, moral reasoning, language, thinking, & creativity • Psychosocial Development • Personality, emotional life, & relationships

• Development involves gains, losses, changes and continuities • Development includes: • Growth • Stability • Decline Periods of the life span

Major Issues in Development • Nature and nurture • Critical periods and plasticity • Physical and emotional milestones • Continuity and discontinuity • The self • Universality and specificity • Are emotions expressed in similar or different ways across cultures? Nature and nurture • Nature: The influence on development of heredity • The biological unfolding (maturation) according to genetic inputs• Nurture: The influence on development of the environment • External physical and sociocultural experiences • Neither operates alone • Nature affects Nurture • Nurture affects Nature  Twin studies have long been used to examine the effects of heredity and environment The nature–nurture issue in development Nature Nurture Developmental Change • Nature: the influences of heredity • Emphasis on the process of maturation • Biological development • Nurture: the influences of environment • Emphasis on learning • Experiences cause changes Clinical example: Schizophrenia  Affects approx. 1% of population (51 million)

M=F but M onset earlier  commonly have their onset in early adult life  usually leave the patient with varying degrees of cognitive, affective, and psychosocial impairment  Symptom Triad • Negative: Disruptions (absence) of normal emotions and behaviours • Positive: The presence of abnormal behaviour • Cognitive: Subtle impairment in executive function: attention and working memory Onset and Course of Schizophrenia • Full manifestation between late adolescence and early adulthood • 1st episode with psychotic symptoms earlier in men than women • Men at greater lifetime risk • Three critical periods in development of disease: • Conception • Early development • Later development 

Important Variables in Onset of Schizophrenia  Stress  Genetics  Environment Genetic Factors  The illness occurs in 1 percent of the general population BUT  Family history of schizophrenia within first-degree relative has a 10% lifetime risk (Source: NIMH) • 65% if identical twin is diagnosed, 28% dizygotic twin  No one specific chromosomal region is responsible for the disorder Environmental Factors • Season of Birth • Maternal malnutrition • Adverse child rearing/child abuse • Drug abuse Treatment  Prolonged periods without treatment result in worse outcome  Family and patient psychoeducation  Social skills training  Early intervention in first episode of psychosis  Identification and early intervention for high-risk patients can be helpful in preventing development of the disorder (Olsen & Rosenbaum, 2006; McGrorry, Killackey, & Yung, 2008) Homework • Schacter, D., Gilbert, D., Wegner, D., & Hood, B. (2020). Psychology (3rd European Edition). London: Palgrave • Chapter 11 • Cognitive Development

Cognitive Development Cognition Cognition: • Mental processes of learning, perception, recognition, memory, and comprehension that allow one to successfully interact with the environment (hopefully). Major Domains 

Visual cognition (e.g., object perception and recognition)

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Attention and resource allocation

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Learning/Memory-structures and processes

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Knowledge Representation: nature and organization of stored knowledge

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Language(development/use of symbol systems)

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Problem-solving(defining and working toward effective solutions)

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Reasoning/decision-making

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Cognition an demotion(effect of emotional arousal on cognitive, affective nature of cognitive processing?

Some questions to consider 

How does cognition develop in humans?

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How does one’s genetic make up influence

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How does environment influence development?

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Are there critical periods of cognitive development across the lifespan?

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Are there sensitive periods of cognitive development across the lifespan?

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Is development static, dynamic, or both?

Developmental Psychology: The study of continuity and change across the lifespan The Science of Studying Change Patterns of Change Over Time

Prenatal Developmental Stages •

Germinal

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0-2 weeks

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Embryonic • 3-8 weeks

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Fetal • week 9-birth

Germinal Stage: Conception and early growth •

Conception – union of egg from mother and sperm from father. Nuclei merge.

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Gametes– reproductive cells (egg and sperm) contain only half genetic material of all other cells in body

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Gametes produced by special type of cell division – Meiosis.

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Zygote (fertilized egg) contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

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22 pairs are matched (autosomes) o 23rd pair (the sex chromosome) o Female zygote: 2 X chromosomes; Male: X from mother and Y from father

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Cell division begins hours after conception

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Mitosis: cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus

Embryonic Stage 

Weeks 3-8, once the zygote is implanted on the uterine wall

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Cell division and differentiation Major organs begin to form (heart, lungs)

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Heart begins to beat, blood is circulated

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A critical stage of development

Fetal Stage: Week 9-birth 

This stage is characterized by the exponential growth of the embryo, now called a fetus/foetus, and the development of fully differentiated organs and tissues.

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As the fetus has developed precursors of all major organs during the embryonic period of development, it is less susceptible to toxins and other environmental abnormalities during this period.

The Central Nervous System

Later Prenatal Development • Neurons begin to fire spontaneously around 4th month of gestation • By the end of 2nd trimester sensory organs have developed to stimulation outside the womb • 25th week eyes open and close and can turn head toward a light source • Taste? Prenatal Behavior The Amazing Fetus!  Fetuses can differentiate between familiar and novel stimuli by around 33 weeks.  Newborns can remember prenatal stimuli and react accordingly.  Fetal response to sounds and vibrations, as seen by changes in heart rate, head turns, and body movements, appears as early as Week 25

Prenatal Environment • Teratogens 

Any substance that causes an abnormality following fetal exposure during pregnancy

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The effect of teratogens is related to the developmental stage in which the substance is introduced, the severity of the exposure, and the duration of the exposure

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While the individual is vulnerable to the influence of teratogens throughout prenatal development, the embryonic stage is a time of heightened vulnerability

Short list of teratogens • Caffeine • Tobacco • Alcohol • Maternal Malnutrition • Maternal Stress Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

• Fetal alcohol syndrome is a group of abnormalities in babies born to mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy. • It is the most common known non-genetic (non- inherited) cause of mental retardation • Alcohol is broken down more slowly in a foetus than in an adult, alcohol levels tend to remain high and stay in the baby’s body longer. • Birth defects associated with prenatal exposure to alcohol can occur in the first 3 to 8 weeks of pregnancy Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) 

Excessive alcohol while pregnant

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Alcohol passes through the placenta

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Alcohol crosses the blood brain barrier and affects a developing baby

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Permanent damage to the CNS and the developing neurons

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Distinct facial features

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Small eye openings • Smooth philtrum • Thin upper lip

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Memory problems, attention deficits and impulsive behaviour

How is FAS diagnosed? Diagnosis is based on physical exam To diagnose someone with FAS, the doctor must determine that the child has: 

Abnormal facial features

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Slower than normal growth

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Central nervous system problems

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These nervous system problems can be physical or behavioural.

Symptoms of fatal alcohol syndrome

Fatal alcohol syndrome covers a wide range of problems, there are many possible symptoms. The severity of these symptoms range from mild to severe and can include: 

Microcephaly

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A smooth ridge between the upper lip and nose, small and wide-set eyes, a very thin upper lip, or other abnormal facial features

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Below average height and weight

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Hyperactivity/poor attention

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Poor coordination

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Delayed physical and cognitive development

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Poor judgment

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Learning disabilities

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Intellectual disability

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Heart and Kidney problems

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Emotional dysregulation

Early Childhood Fun Facts!

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At birth, the brain weights around 300 grams; this increases across the next four years to about 1200 grams Only the most important nerves for basic survival are myelinated at birth, such as the reflexes; however, as the baby grows, so do the amount of myelinated regions New stimuli result in synaptogenesis. Also, the dendrites multiply and grow as it learns and experiences new things Stress and emotional neglect can impair infant brain development 1 thousand trillion brain cell connections have been formed by the age of 3

Postnatal brain development

Beyond the Blooming, Buzzing Confusion Making Sense of the World: Sensation • Vision    

Visual cortex is immature at birth but develops rapidly 6 month old infants having visual abilities similar to adult. Initially appear to look at areas of greatest contrast Even with limited acuity, accommodation, and scanning, the infant can distinguish faces...we seem to have a specialty for faces • Audition • Relatively well developed hearing at birth • The orienting response used to test auditory process • Taste and smell

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Appears to be influenced by prenatal life.

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Newborns prefer smell of own mothers and mother’s milk and will turn to a breast that is lactating • Touch

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Infants are initially unable to reach and grasp. There is a well documented literature on the importance of being touched

Critical and Sensitive Periods in Development 

• Critical periods represent a time when a particular part of the body is most easily influenced or vulnerable to the lack of stimulation or to environmental effects

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• Sensitive periods refer to opportunity for certain types of learning, that is less precise and a longer time period compared to critical period. During this period, if there is a lack of opportunity for a certain type of learning, it is not gone forever (as it is for critical periods) but, may be more difficult to attain and/or retain

Getting to know the world: Reflexes Infant Reflexes (Motor) Rooting reflex   

 Trigger: A gentle stroke on the newborn’s cheek  Response: Baby turns toward the touch, with mouth open  Duration: 3-4 months

Suck reflex Trigger: Something, such as a nipple (breast or bottle), touching roof of baby’s mouth Response: Baby sucks on nipple Duration: 3-4 months Moro reflex (Startle Reflex) Trigger: Loud noise (even baby’s own cry!), sudden movement, or sensation of falling Response: Baby cries and extends legs, arms, and fingers, arches back, then retracts arms and legs  Duration: 4-6 months Infant Reflexes Babinski’s reflex 

Trigger: A gentle stroke on the sole of the foot (from heel to toe)

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Response: Foot turns in and toes flare up Duration: 6-24 months Walking (or stepping) reflex Trigger: Holding baby upright with his feet on a flat surface Response: Baby lifts one foot, then the other, as if walking Duration: 2 months Grasp (or palmar grasp) reflex Trigger: Pressing a finger or other object, such as a rattle, into baby’s palm Response: Baby makes a fist and tries to grab finger Duration: 3-4 months

Acting on the World: Motor Development

Jean Piaget (1896 –1980) Much of Piaget’s work focused on observation of babies interacting with their environments: -Sucking of objects in the mouth -Following moving objects with the eyes -Closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp) Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

• Children’s reasoning and understanding emerge naturally in stages • The capacity to think logically about both concrete and abstract

contents evolves in four universal stages: 1. Sensorimotor stage (Birth -2) 2. Preoperational thought (Age 2-7) 3. Concrete operational thought (Age 7-12) 4. Formal operational thought (12-adulthood) Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Important Components of Piaget’s Stage Theory • Reasoning is qualitatively different across stages • Stages are universal • All children across cultures go through these stages • Invariant: children go through the same stages at around roughly the same time. • Within stages, development is an ongoing process in which the infant develop, apply, and adjust their schemas as they build an understanding of the world.

Piaget’s Theory of cognitive development 

Cognitive development: A progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

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Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment. Development occurs as we fit new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas • Schema: A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information

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Children learn through Adaptation Adaptation consists of Assimilation and Accommodation

Assimilation & Accommodation EX: A child seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a horse. The child assimilates this information into her schema for a horse. When the child accommodates information, she takes into consideration the different properties of a zebra compared to a horse. When she eventually learns the name of zebra, she has accommodated this information. Sensorimotor Stage: Infant Cognition • The Sensorimotor Stage • During this stage senses, reflexes, and motor abilities develop rapidly. • Intelligence develops as reflex movements become more refined, such as when an infant will reach for a preferred toy, and will suck on a nipple and not a pacifier when hungry. • Understanding of the world primarily involves direct interactions with objects. • Actions discovered first by accident are repeated and applied to new situations to obtain the same results. • Toward the end of this stage, the ability to form mental images develops • Impacts perception: object permanence and memory Sensorimotor Stage: Understanding Objects Objects surround us and stimulate our senses. Newborns develop a conceptual understanding of objects Intersensory integration the need to integrate the sensual experiences

Object permanence: the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed (seen, heard, touched, smelled or sensed) in any way Object Permanence • Realizing that an object exists even when they are out of sight • Prior to 8 months  

If I drop my toy and I can’t see it....it is gone! .....THIS is why peek-a-boo is so much fun! • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pCwiYCQr3xs • 8-12 months

• You hid ...