Psych 282 - Chapter 22 - The Token Economy PDF

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Jeffrey Pisklak ...

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Chapter 22 – The Token Economy Defining a Token Economy  Token Economy: A reinforcement system in which conditioned reinforcers called tokens are delviered to people for desirable behaviors: the tokens are later exchanged for backup reinforcers o Reinforcement system in which conditioned reinforcers called tokens are delivered to people for desirable behaviors – the tokens are exchanged to back-up reinforcers  The purpose of a token economy is to strengthen clients’ desirable behaviors that occur too infrequently and to decrease their undesirable behaviors in a structured treatment environment or educational setting o Each point received for desirable behavior is a token, which are accumulated and later exchanged for back-up reinforcers  Token: A conditioned reinforcer used in a token economy; the token is something that can be given to another person and accumulated by that person  The token is a conditioned reinforcer because it is given to the person after a desirable behavior and is exchanged for established reinforcers called backup reinforcers  Back-up Reinforcers: Reinforcers used in a token economy; a client receives tokens for desirable behaviors and exchanges a specified number of tokens for any of a variety of backup reinforcers o Because the token is paired with other reinforcers, it comes a conditioned reinforcer that strengthens the desirable behavior it follows  Back-up reinforcers can only be obtained by paying for them with tokens, and tokens can be obtained only by exhibiting desirable behaviors  The following are essential components of a token economy: o The desirable target behaviors to be strengthened o The tokens to be used as conditioned reinforcers o The backup reinforcers to be exchanged for the tokens o A reinforcement schedule for token delivery o The rate at which tokens are exchanged for the back-up reinforcers o A time and place for exchanging tokens for backup reinforcers Implementing a Token Economy o Defining the target behaviors o The purpose of the token economy is to strengthen desirable behaviors in clients o The first step in planning the token economy is to identify and define the desirable behaviors that will be reinforced in the program o Identifying the items to use as tokens o The token must be some tangible that the change anent can deliver immediately after each instance of the target behavior o Tokens must be practical and convenient for the change agent to carry and to dispense in the treatment environment when the target behaviors occur o Must be in a form that clients can accumulate and carry with them o Tokens chosen must not be available from any other source than the change agent o Change agents must prevent clients from stealing tokens from one another or from the change agents, counterfeiting tokens, and acquiring tokens from other sources within to outside the program o Identifying Backup Reinforcers o Tokens acquire their effectiveness as conditioned reinforcers because they are paired with the backup reinforcers – the effectiveness of a token economy depends on the backup reinforcer o Backup reinforcers are not available to the clients except for purchase with tokens o Limiting access to the backup reinforcers increases their reinforcing value because a relative state of deprivation is established o Deciding on the appropriate schedule of reinforcement o The change agents deliver tokens contingent on instances of the desirable target behaviors o Often the program begins with continuous reinforcement, in which each instance of the target behavior results in the delivery of the token(s) o Must earn enough tokens in the early phases of the token economy so that they can exchange them for backup reinforcers regularly o Establishing the token exchange rate o Backup reinforcers must be purchased with tokens earned for desirable behaviors – thus, all backup reinforcers must have a price, or the rate at which the tokens are exchanged for them o Smaller items are exchanged for fewer tokens and larger items are exchanged for more tokens o The change agents must also determine the maximum amount of tokens that a client can earn in one day and set the exchange rate accordingly o The exchange rate must be such that the client can acquire some backup reinforcers for exhibiting a reasonable level of desirable behaviors but does not acquire so much of the reinforcers that satiation occurs o Establishing the time and place for exchanging tokens o The clients accumulate tokens for desirable behavior over time as they participate in the treatment program o Periodically, the clients are allowed to exchange their tokens for backup reinforcers o The time and place for exchange are planned in advance o In some cases, there is a token store (clients earning tokens do not have access to it and it is only open at designated times)

Sometimes, the client identifies a specific activity or privilege that they would like to purchase and makes that arrangement with the staff running the program Deciding whether to use response cost o A response cost component is not always used with a token economy  If the goal of the token economy is to strengthen desirable behaviors and there are not competing problem behaviors, the token economy will not include a response cost component  If there are undesirable behaviors that compete with the desirable behaviors, response cost may be included in the token economy o When a response cost program is included, it should be introduced after the token economy has been in place for a period of time  The loss of tokens in the response cost component will be effective as a punisher only after the tokens have been firmly established as conditioned reinforcers for the participants o Response cost is only used if the change agent can get the tokens back  If the client resists or becomes violent when then change agent attempts to take the tokens back, it may be impossible to use response cost  Alternatives – use different tokens that the clients do not keep in their possession (i.e. points on a chalk board) o To implement response cost, change agents must define the undesirable target behaviors they hope to decrease and the number of tokens that will be lost for an instance of each identified problem behavior o The problem behaviors identified for inclusion in the response cost program must be socially significant problems that warrant the use of response cost Staff training and management o Staff members must receive training before the token economy is implemented for the first time o Written instructions in all the components of the program and behavioral skills training are needed to conduct the program as planned o A token economy must be implemented consistency if it is to result in improvements in the target behaviors – this means that the staff must fulfil the following responsibilities  Discriminate each intake of all of the target behaviors  Deliver tokens immediately after the target behavior, according to the correct schedule of reinforcement  Discriminate each instance of all identified problem behaviors  Implement response cost immediately when the problem behavior occurs (if applicable)  Preserve the integrity of the tokens and prevent theft of counterfeiting  Know the exchange rate and times and adhere to the rules of exchange o

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Practical Considerations  Successful implementation of a token economy depends on certain other considerations  The change agent should always deliver the tokens immediately after the desirable target behavior o The portability and ease of delivery of tokens allow the change agent to reinforce desirable behaviors immediately after they occur  The change agent should always praise the client while delivering the tokens for desirable behavior o Praise is a natural conditioned reinforcer for most people and becomes potent when paired with tokens  For young children or individuals with intellectual disabilities, early in the program, backup reinforcers should be given to the client at the same time the token is given so that the pairing is immediate and the token is more likely to become a conditioned reinforcer  Because a token economy is artificial, it should always be faded out before the client lea ves the treatment program o Once the clients are consistently achieving success, the token economy is discontinued, and natural contingencies of reinforcement (praise, good grades, work outcomes) are used to maintain the desirable behavior o Fading increases the likelihood that the behavior change will be generalized from the treatment program to the everyday environment o When token reinforcements are no longer in place, natural reinforcers maintain the behavior Applications of a Token Economy  Hospitalized psychotic patients, adolescents with behavioral disorders, hyperactive children, preschoolers, grade school students (points for academic performance), prison inmates (doing chores), university students, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Token Economy  When considering the use of a token economy, you should address three basic questions o Can staff or other change agents be trained to carry out the program consistently on a daily basis? o Are there sufficient financial resources to conduct the program? o Do the expected benefits (improvement in behavior) justify the time, effort, and cost of conducting the program? Advantages  Tokens can be used to reinforce the target behavior immediately after it occurs  A token economy is highly structured; desirable target behaviors often are reinforced more consistently  Tokens are generalized conditioned reinforcers because they are paired with a variety of other reinforcers  As a result, tokens function as reinforcers regardless of any specific establishing operation that may exist for a client at any time  Tokens are easy to dispense and easy for recipients to accumulate  Token reinforcement can be quantified easily, so different behaviors can receive a greater or lesser magnitude of reinforcement (more or fewer tokens)  Response cost is easier to implement in a token economy because the recipient has accumulated tokens that may be removed contingent on the occurrence of the problem behavior  The recipient can learn the skills involved in planning for the future by saving tokens for larger purchases

Disadvantages  Time and effort involved in organizing and conducting the program  Cost of purchasing the back-up reinforcers  Staff training and management

Chapter Summary o A token economy is a behavior modification procedure in which conditioned reinforcers called tokens are used to strengthen desirable behaviors in clients participating in a treatment or educational program o Research can be used successfully with children and adults in a variety of treatment settings o In a token economy, target behaviors are identified and tokens are delivered contingent on their occurrence o Tokens are later exchanged for backup reinforcers at a predetermined exchange rate o Response cost, in which the occurrence of problem behaviors results in the loss of tokens, may be implemented as a component of a token economy when one goal is to decrease the occurrence of undesirable behaviors o A variety of items may be used as tokens in a token economy o Tokens must be easy to carry and deliver by the change agent immediately after the target behaviors o The clients must be able to accumulate tokens earned in a token economy o The advantages of a token economy are that tokens can be delivered immediately after the target behavior, they are easy to dispense and accumulate, they can be quantified, and they don’t lose their value as reinforcer o The token economy is highly structured, can accommodate a response cost procedure, and can teach the recipient planning skills o Disadvantages of a token economy include time, effort, and cost

Chapter Quiz – Chapter 22 1.

What is a token? Identify some items that can be used as a token. Describe how tokens are used in a token economy.

2.

What is a generalized conditioned reinforcer? How does a token become a generalized conditioned reinforcer?

3.

Why is it important to deliver a token immediately after an instance of the desirable behavior?

4.

What are the essential components of a token economy?

5.

What are backup reinforcers? Provide examples. How are backup reinforcers chosen?

6.

When would a continuous reinforcement schedule be used in a token economy? When would an intermittent schedule be used?

7.

What are the important considerations in establishing the exchange rate for backup reinforcers?

8.

Why is it important to pair prise with the delivery of tokens?

9.

Why is it important to fade the use of tokens over time? When is the appropriate time to fade the use of tokens?

10. Describe the advantages of a token economy. Describe the disadvantages.

11. Describe five different applications of a token economy. For each, identify the target behaviors, the items that were used as tokens, and the backup reinforcers....