Psychology 361 Notes 1-3 PDF

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Weeks 1-3 Full Notes Dr. Banerjee...

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August 31st, 2016 Psychology 361: Adolescence What is adolescence? G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) Pioneered the scientific study of adolescence Storm & Stress model o Turbulence charged with mood swings and conflict He said there is a lot of turbulence that is marked with this age of development, we see a lot of one way or another, when youths reach adolescence we see a lot of mood swings happiness and anger and we don't know why He is the first person who identified this period of development   

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Margaret Mead (1928) o Anthropologist Adolescence NOT= Biological Sociocultural Cultures -> sexual relations= relatively stress free adolescence Cultures -> US = stress She proposed that cultures like the US that aren’t very open to having conversations about sexual and romantic relationships had youth that grew up with a lot of stress. She saw it from an anthropologic perspective. The reason this is not stressful is because you are growing up so used to seeing these things day to day that eventually when you get older you are no longer worried about these things, it is a norm. It is easier for youth to transition into becoming adults because they grew up with these adult things around them. What is adolescence? Inventionist View Sociohistorical creation Started in the 20th century Industrial revolution Schools Youth wanted to get jobs but there weren’t enough so they started doing bad things like going gambling, and so the government decided they had to do something with these kids so they created high schools so the youth would go back to school. The industrial revolution gave the youth some jobs but not enough so the youth decided to start pickpocketing, gambling etc, and so they created schools where youth would then transition into becoming an adult. This is where adolescence was really found because high schools became the stage before these kids became adults. Millennials: Who are They?

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Generation born after 1980 First to come of age in the new millennium Two main characteristics (in regards to the United States): o Ethnic diversity o Connection to technology Ethnic Diversity of Millennials More tolerant Open minded 60% had more diverse group of friends

They were open to diverse relationships, abortions, etc because they were more ethnically diverse and grew up more open minded

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Technology of Millenials Increased use of media and technology Multitaskers Sleep with cell phones nearby Adept at texting Challenges and Benefits of Adolescence  

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Stereotyping Positive youth development

Stereotype Generalization that reflects impressions and beliefs about a broad category of people Images There are certain images that come up when we think about adolescents things we believe to be true What are some stereotypes you’ve heard of being said about adolescents? o Spoiled, lost, disrespectful, entitled, hypersexual Counteracting Stereotypes Offer and colleagues (1988) Multi-country study 73% of adolescents had a positive self-image Positive Youth Development (PYD) Emphasizes the strengths of youth and the positive qualities Positive pathways for youth Five “C”s of PYD Lerner and colleagues is actually known for PYD They identified five Cs of PYD Five C’s of PYD Competence – positive perceptions of one’s own actions Confidence- positive sense of self worth and self efficacy Connection- positive relationships with others (family, peers, teachers) Character- respect for societal rules, knowing right from wrong Caring/compassion- showing emotional concern for others

Youth might not have all 5 these are just the five things make up a positive youth, so when they do research these are the five things they look at Processes in Adolescence      

Biological Cognitive Socio-emotional (These are all on a ven diagram with 3 circles) There is overlap with all 3 of these topics

Biological Processes Physical changes in the body What are some physical changes that may happen in adolescence?

o Puberty, brain growth, hair growth, voice deepens

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Cognitive Processes Changes in an individual’s thinking and intelligence Memorizing poems, problem solving. Socioemotional Processes Changes in an individual’s emotion, personality, relationships, and social contexts What are some socioemtional processes present in adolescence? o Building relationships, your identity Periods of Development Before Adolescence

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Prenatal period: 0 to 9 months (prior to birth) Infancy: Birth 18-24 months Early Childhood 18/24 months to 5-6 years of age. Middle childhood: 6-11 years of age

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Adolescence Period of transition from childhood to adulthood Biological, emotional and social, cognitive changes Begins around 10-13 to late teens (18-19) Two Periods

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Early adolescence- middle school, includes the most pubertal changes Late adolescence- later half of adolescence o Career interests, dating and identity exploration Adulthood Early adulthood- 20s-35 o Establishing personal/economic independence. Career development. Middle adulthood- 35-45 years of age -> 55/65 years o Transmitting values to the next generation, concern about health Late adulthood: 60/70 years of age to death o Decreasing strength and health as well as retirement and reduced income September 7th , 2016 Developmental Issues Nature vs. Nurture

o Nature? o Biological characteristics  Nurture o Environmental characteristics  What were your parents like, how was school, where you grew up Another viewpoint 

Epigenetics o Bidirectional interchange

 Heredity  Environment No its not just nature and its not just nurture but because they both play a role it is both of them. Its an interplay one impacts the other, biology can impact the environment or the environment can impact the biology. Continuous or Discontinuous  Continuous: Development involved gradual, cumulative change  Discontinuous: Development occurs in stages When early developmental psychologists started thinking of theories and how to describe development many of them were thinking about either one of these or both. Scientific Method    

Conceptualize a problem Collect Data Analyze Data Draw Conclusions Theories & Hypotheses

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Theory o Interrelated coherent set of ideas o Helps to explain phenomena o Make predictions

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Hypothesis o Specific assertions o Can be tested o Hypothesis: study habits and sleep “Those who drink more coffee get less sleep thus retaining less information while studying”

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Psychoanalytic Theory Development is unconscious o Colored by emotion o Behavior is a surface characteristic o Symbolic meanings of behavior o Inner workings of the mind Sigmund Freud

Problems=experiences early in life o Oral Brith to 24 months o Anal o Phallic o Latency o Genital He believed that within these five stages an individual could get fixated at one of these stages. For ex. If a baby got fixated on oral stage he believes that is what causes people to do these like enjoying eating soft food, biting their nails, and doing other oral things. Discontinuous 

Freud’s Personality 

Id

o Totally unconscious, based on drives  Ego o Rational decision making o While the id is motivated by these unconscious drives, the ego is trying to make a plan to fulfill that drive  Superego o Conscience o This decides if the action you want to do is right or wrong o “angel and devil on your shoulder” Continuous

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Freud Defense mechanisms o Unconscious methods of distorting reality o Resolves conflict Repression o Foundation for all other defense mechanisms Erik Erikson

 8 stages of development  Crises that must be resolved Student of Freud Discontinuous

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Erikson’s stages (stage 5 & 6) Identity vs. Role Confusion o Explore roles in a healthy manner  Figuring out who you are, and by exploring these roles and who you are you develop a healthy sense of identity. However if this exploration is not successful Erikson would say you are confused about your identity. Intimacy vs. Isolation o Intimate relationships: friendships, romance  He would say the person who is able to develop successful relationships (romantic and plutonic) develops a sense of intimacy and it is easy to create these relationships at that time. But if you cannot make these relationships he would say you live a life of isolation. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Individuals actively construct their understanding of the world Four stages of cognitive Development o Sensory Motor Stage o Preoperational Period o Concrete Operational o *Formal Operational Stage*  11 years to Adulthood  Abstract ways of thought  Idealistic and logical problem solving

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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Emphasis on social interaction and culture Learning o Inventions of society  Language  Math  Memory systems  What are the two main principles of Vygotsky? o ZPD “Zone of Proximal Development” o Scaffolding

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Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Behavior consequences changes the changes of behavior reoccurring What are two main ideas with Skinner’s work? o Positive Reinforcement/ Rewards  We might use things like stickers, token economy, or things that illicit these things be given to them o Negative Reinforcement/ Punishment  These are things that decrease the chance of that behavior occurring over time.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive/Learning Theory  He believed that there is an interaction between behavior, environment, and a person/cognition and that interaction is very important to development  Observational Learning o Imitation or modeling o Learning occurs by watching others How we study certain kind of behaviors or the development of them is really reliant on his social learning theory. If parents are modeling certain kinds of behaviors their children are more likely to pick up those behaviors. If a parent smokes, a teen is more likely to smoke because they will copy that behavior. Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory  Development reflects the influence of five environmental systems “Layers of the onion” or “parfait” o Microsystem: the setting the adolescent lives.  Direct interactions  Family system, neighborhood, school, etc o Mesosystem: relations between microsystems  Relation of family to school experiences  Might be disengaged in school because at home they have a bad life o Exosystem: links between social settings  Indirect interactions  Usually links between the social settings ex. The parent might have just lost their job and so that impacts how the child goes to and from school, how much they see their parent, who makes dinner, etc, and this direct impact on how this impacts the parent at work might indirectly effect the adolescent o Macrosystem: Culture the adolescent lives

 Behavior, beliefs and social norms o Chronosystem: transitions over time  Chrono means time  Death in the family, a birth of a new family member ** Significance to the Order ** Research Methods Data Collection     

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Observation o Watching people, natural setting Surveys o Quantitative measures Interviews o Great qualitative collection Standardized Tests o Used to look at measurements of achievement Physiological Measures o Stress level: Cortisol, blood pressure, swabs, etc o Heart rate, sweating o EEGs, fMRIs, Two types of Variables Independent o The factor that is manipulated Dependent o The factor that is measured Puberty

 Important marker for adolescence  Brain-neuroendocrine process  Early adolescence  Catalyst for rapid physical changes It can start as early as 9 years old.

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Determinants of Puberty Heredity Hormones Weight Sociocultural/environmental factors

Heredity Genes help determine the timing of puberty Studies have been done. o Molecular level o Identify specific genes o Onset/progression of puberty Studies have been done that look at if there is a genetic link of when you go through puberty  

Endocrine System

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Chemicals secreted by the endocrine gland are what starts puberty Endocrine system o Hypothalamus  Monitors eating, drinking, and sex o Pituitary o Endocrine gland o Controls growth and regulates other glands o Gonads o Sex glands o Testies, ovaries Hormones

o Androgens o Male sex hormones o Testosterone  Passed through testes  Physical changes o Estrogen o Female sex hormones o Estradiol o Passed through the ovaries o Physical changes Phases of Puberty o Adrenarche o Changes in hormones in adrenals o 6-9 in females o One year later in males o Gonadarche o Follows in 2 years o Maturation of primary sex characteristics  Ovaries, testes o Secondary sex characteristics  Pubic hair, breasts, genitals o Menarche o First menstrual period o mid/late gonadarche o Spermarche o First ejaculation of semen o Early to mid gonadarche When Menarche and Spermarche are present we say that is the onset of adolescent development Weight o Critical mass needed for onset of puberty (Ackerman et al., 2006) o Menarche influenced by weight and body fat (Susman et al., 2003) o Birth weight of the child may influence puberty. o Low birth weight: 5-10 months earlier

o Low birth weight: small testicular volume Sociocultural Factors o Developed vs. non-developed countries (Graham, 2005) o Youth enter into puberty sooner (developed countries) o 15,000 girls in China were surveyed and those who lived in urban settings got menarche quicker than those who didnt(Sun et al., 2012)  Rural vs. urban o Ethnicity  African American females & males Growth Spurt o Puberty: most rapid increases in growth since infancy o Occurs two years earlier  For girls (age 9)  Than boys (age 11) o Height:  Girls: 3 ½ inches per year  Boys: about 4 inches o Body width:  Girls gain hip width  Boys gain shoulder width  Leg length: boys produce a greater leg o Face structure:  Boys: more angular  Girls: rounder and softer Sexual Maturation o Male pubertal characteristics o Increased penis and testicle size (most noticeable) o Pubic hair appears o Minor voice change o First ejaculation (spermarche) o Onset of maximum growth o Growth of armpit hair o More detectable voice changes o Growth of facial hair (more noticeable) o Female pubertal characteristics o Breast development (most noticeable) o Growth of pubic hair (most noticeable) o Growth of armpit hair o Height gain o Hips become wider than shoulders o First menstruation (menarche)

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Psychological Dimensions of Puberty Body image o Adolescents are preoccupied with their bodies o Gender differences

Puberty girls are less happy with their bodies  Have more negative body images  Girls often become more dissatisfied -> their body fat increases  Boys become more satisfied -> their muscle mass increases o Adolescent girls o Higher aesthetic value on body image o Lower aesthetic satisfaction with their bodies o Most positive body images -> health- enhancing behaviors o Regular exercise o Self-esteem and depression (Yuan, 2010) Found that self esteem and depression are related to exercise and body image o Non-Latino white girls – most influenced o Non-Latino White boys- least influenced o Hormones and behavior o Increase in negative and variable emotions o Certain hormones can actually increase negative and variable emotions o In boys, higher levels of androgens are associated with violence and acting-out problems (Van Goozen et al., 1998) o Increased estrogen levels are linked to depression in adolescent girls (Blakemore et al., 2009) Males report higher levels or aggression; females report higher levels of depression o Environmental factors o Parent-adolescent relationships o Stress o Eating patterns o Sexual activity o Early and late maturation o The Berkeley Longitudinal Study (1967) o Early-maturing boys  More positive perceptions  Successful peer relations  Findings for early-maturing girls were similar o Early maturation increases girls’ vulnerability to a number of problems 

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Adolescents’ health enhancing behaviors (youngblade & others, 2006): o Participation in school-related organized activities, such as sports; o Availability of positive community resources, such as Boys & Girls Clubs, and volunteering o Secure attachment to parents.

Risk-taking Behavior Factors to reduce RTB More resources there are in the community o Youth activities, adults as role models, parental monitoring, parental communication skills These reduce risk-taking behaviors  Brain and Behaviors o Later development of the prefrontal cortex o Earlier maturity of the amygdala Because these things don't happen yet in the brain it leads the child to risk taking behaviors.  

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Leading Causes of Death (in adolescents) Accidents Homicide Suicide Unintentional Accidents o Almost half of all deaths from 15-24 years o Approximately ¾ are motor vehicle accidents o In about 50% of motor vehicle fatalities  The driver has a blood alcohol level of .10% Homicide o Leading cause of death o Among African American males who are three times more likely to be killed by guns Suicide o The third-leading cause of death o Since the 1950s the suicide rate has tripled Nutrition: Eating Health-compromising behaviors and eating disorders (WHO, 2000): 28 countries o US Adolescents more likely to eat fried food, less likely to eat fruits and veggies Eating regular family meals during early adolescence -> healthy eating habits five years later Parents o Food choices, serving as role models for nutrition, including adolescents in regular family meals Exercise Improves the quality of life Individuals become less active A recent national study of U.S. o 9-11 year olds  30 minutes a day o 31% of 15 year olds on weekdays o 17% on weekends (Nadar & others, 2008) The benefits of regular exercise include: o A positive effect of weight status  Reduced triglyceride levels  Lower blood pressure  A lower incidence of type II diabetes o Lower levels of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use o Improved the sleep quality  Mood  Concentration Sports Boys (60%) were more likely to play on a sports team than girls (48.5%) African American boys had the highest participation rate (66%) Latino females the lowest participation rate (45%) Potential positive influences o Improve adolescents’ physical health and well-being o Self-confidence o Motivation to excel

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o Ability to work with others o Less likely to engage in such risk-taking behaviors Potential negative influences: o Pressure to achieve and win o Physical injuries o Distraction from academic work o Unrealistic expectations for success o Pressure by parents and coaches  self-centeredness o injuries o Use of performance-enhancing drugs, such as steroids September 14th, 2016 Cognitive Development and the Adolescent Brain Chapter Three

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The Brain Adolescent’s the brain is different from the child’s brain Adolescence the brain is still developing

The Neuroconstructivist View Genes -> brains are “wired” Cells in the brain responsible for processing information just develop alone Brain has plasticity o Development depends on context o Experiences to determine how neuron connections are made It is not just that the brain is working on itself alone, the experiences you have as an adolescent really effect how those neural connections are made in the brain  In the neuroconstructivist View o Biological processes and environmental experiences both influence brains developme...