Psychology ch 7,8,9,10 For Exam 3 PDF

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Notes from Ch 7,8,9,10...

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Next Test april 16th. Chapter 7,8,9,10 Chapter 7 split by Class Lecture

Learning Behaviorist: A relatively permanent change in behavior that stems from experience (Consider Taste Aversion) EX: Eat a food then throw up then not like that food any more Cognitive theorists’: The process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience (Behavior may or may not change)

Different types of learning

Learning by Association: Classical Conditioning Changing Behavior Through Reinforcement and Punishment: Operant Conditioning Learning by Insight and Observation Using the Principles of Learning to Understand Everyday Behavior

Some famous learning theorists: Ivan Pavlov: Russian physiologist known chiefly for his development of the concept of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment, he trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a metronome or buzzer, which was previously associated with the sight of food. John Watson: Caused a kid to have a Phobia of rats. He also promoted conditioned responses as the ideal experimental tool. In 1918 Watson ventured into the relatively unexplored field of infant study. In one of his classic experiments—and one of the most controversial in the history of psychology—he conditioned fear of white rats and other furry objects in “Little Albert,” an orphaned 11-month-old boy. B. F. Skinner: an influential exponent of behaviourism, which views human behaviour in terms of responses to environmental stimuli and favours the controlled, scientific study of responses as the most direct means of elucidating human nature. A striking example was his pigeons that learned to play table tennis. One of his best-known inventions, the Skinner box, has been adopted in pharmaceutical research for observing how drugs may modify animal behaviour.

7.1 LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING LEARNING OBJECTIVES: 1. Describe how Pavlov’s early work in classical conditioning influenced the understanding of learning. 2. Review the concepts of classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditioned response (UR), and conditioned response (CR). 3. Explain the roles that extinction, generalization, and discrimination play in conditioned learning.

Conditioning = Learning

Ivan Pavlov & Classical Conditioning: Famous book: Conditioned Reflexes (1927) Reflexes are defined as “simple, unlearned responses to stimuli.” ➔ Meat is an unconditioned(Unlearned) stimulus (UCS or US). Salivation, in response to meat, is an unconditioned reflex or response (UCR or UR). ➔ A Bell paired with meat is a conditioned stimulus (CS). Salivation in response to a bell is a conditioned reflex or response (CR). ➔ Contiguous” at the same time” Classical conditioning: learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior

Stimulus or Response

Definition

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

An item(e.g., food) that triggers a naturally occurring response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with the US, evokes a response similar to that triggered by the US

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The naturally occurring response to the US

Conditioned Response (CR)

The acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus

The Persistence and Extinction of Conditioning Acquisition: The CS and the US are repeatedly paired together and behavior increases. Extinction: The CS is repeatedly presented alone, and the behavior slowly decreases. Spontaneous recovery: After a pause, when the CS is again presented alone, the behavior may again occur and then again show extinction.

*Acquisition(learning) and Extinction(unlearning) *Generalization: The tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned.

7.2 Changing Behavior Through Reinforcement and Punishment: Operant Conditioning Learning of new Behavior; learning based on the consequences of behavior may involve the learning of new behaviors Habit Learning relationship between conditioning and learning 1 type of learning Second order conditioning: why you like friday

HOW REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR

Edward L. Thorndike ● ● ●

B. F. Skinner

First scientist to systematically study operant conditioning Observed cats trying to escape from puzzle boxes Developed law of effect: ○ Responses that produce a pleasant outcome are likely to be repeated in a similar situation. ○ Responses that produce an unpleasant outcome are less likely to be repeated in a similar situation.

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Expanded on Thorndike’s ideas to develop a more complete set of principles to explain operant conditioning Created specially designed environments called operant chambers or Skinner boxes to study learning systematically

B.F. Skinner & Operant Conditioning - The Behavior of Organisms (1938) - Operants - spontaneously emitted behaviors. - Reinforcements - increase the probability of the behaviors which they follow.

Operant chamber or “Skinner box” - Cage large enough for a rodent or bird - Contains a bar or key that the organism can press or pec to release food or water - Contains a device to record the animal’s responses

How Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Behavior Operant Conditioning Term

Description

Outcome

Example

Positive Reinforcement

Add of increase a pleasant stimulus

Behavior is strengthened

Giving a student a prize after he gets an A

Negative Reinforcement

Reduce or remove a unpleasant stimulus

Behavior is strengthened

You have a headache you take medicine. Pain goes away so you increase behavior of taking medicine so that pain stays away

Positive Punishment

Present or add an unpleasant stimulus

Behavior is weakened

Giving a student extra homework after she misbehaves in class

Negative Punishment

Reduce or remove a pleasant stimulus

Behavior is weakened

Taking away a teen’s computer after he/she misses curfew; Getting a ticket for Speeding

Getting a spanking- Positive punishment Getting a ticket for Speeding- negative because money is coming out of bank account. You enjoy the money you worked for and it is being taken away for doing something wrong TYPES OF REINFORCES

WHAT IT IS

Positive reinforcers

increase the frequency of an operant when presented.

Negative reinforcers

increase the frequency of an operant when removed. (Not punishment!)

Primary reinforcers

unlearned, e.g. food, water, sex, or pain.

Secondary reinforcers

learned or conditioned, e.g. $ or status.

Good For Studying

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Positive reinforcement is a more effective way to change behavior than is punishment ○ Punishment creates only a temporary change in behavior. ○ Punishment creates a negative and adversarial relationship with the individual providing the punishment.

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Elizabeth Gershoff (2002) analyzed 88 studies of more than 36,000 children and found: ○ Children who are physically punished are less likely to develop internal moral standards. ○ Physical punishment is connected with poorer parent-child relationships. ○ Physically punished children are more likely to be aggressive toward other children and to engage in criminal behavior later on. ○ Physically punished children are more likely to abuse their spouses or their own children as adults.

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Negative Side Effects of Punishment: ○ Punishment does not suggest an alternative. ○ A discrimination is learned. ○ The punished organism may withdraw. ○ A negative emotional response is learned, by way of Classical Conditioning. ○ Punishment may generalize too far. ○ Punishment may be modeled. ○ The punished behavior is still learned!

CREATING COMPLEX BEHAVIORS THROUGH OPERANT CONDITIONING

Continuous reinforcement ➔ A response is reinforced each time it occurs. ◆ example: Each time a dog rolls over, it receives a biscuit. ➔ Leads to rapid initial learning, but also to poor resistance to extinction

Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement ➔ A response is sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. ◆ example: When you hold a door for someone, sometimes you are reinforced with a smile or a “thank you,” but sometimes you aren’t, ➔ Leads to slower initial learning, but also to greater resistance to extinction

*Shaping: ● Process of guiding an organism’s behavior to the desired outcome through the use of successive approximations to a final desired behavior ○ allows the creation of complex behaviors

Concepts from Operant Conditioning: ● Discriminative Stimuli indicate that reinforcement is available. ● Shaping is a way to teach complex behaviors by first reinforcing approximations of the target behavior. “Zeroing in on it.” ● Time Out is the removal of an organism from a situation in which reinforcement is available when unwanted behavior is shown.

Primary reinforcers ● Stimuli that are naturally preferred by the organism ○ examples include food, water, relief from pain

Secondary reinforcers ● Neutral event that has become associated with a primary reinforcer through classical conditioning ○ one example is money

7.3 LEARNING BY INSIGHT AND OBSERVATION ● Watson and Skinner believed that conditioning processes are sufficient to explain learning. ● However, conditioning cannot fully explain some types of learning. ○ insight – the sudden understanding of a problem’s solution ○ latent learning – learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement ○ observational learning – learning that occurs by watching others’ behavior

Insight ● The sudden understanding of a problem’s solution ● Demonstrated by Kohler among chimpanzees ○ Chimpanzees given a difficult problem began with trial-and-error attempts. They then stopped and seemed to contemplate the problem for a while. ○ Following the period of contemplation, the chimps suddenly seemed to know how to solve the problem.

Latent learning ● Learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so ● Tolman demonstrate latent learning in an experiment involving three groups of rats learning to run a maze. ○ Group 1 – always reinforced; Group 2 – never reinforced; Group 3 – not reinforced for first 10 days, then always reinforced from Day 11 on ○ When Group 3 began receiving reinforcement, they quickly matched the performance of Group 1. ○ Group 3 formed a ‘cognitive map’ of the maze even when they were not

receiving reinforcement.

Observational learning ● Learning by watching the behavior of others ● Bandura demonstrated observational learning in his “Bobo doll” studies. ● Children who viewed an adult behave aggressively toward a large inflatable plastic doll later behaved aggressively toward the doll themselves. THE EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES ON AGGRESSION

● By the age of 12, the average American child has seen more than 8000 murders and 100,000 acts of violence on TV. ● The more media violence children view, the more aggressive they are likely to be.

● Playing violent video games also leads to aggression. ○ One meta-analysis of 35 studies showed that exposure to violent video games is linked to aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior; to physiological arousal; and to less altruistic behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).

Ways in which Media Violence may contribute to aggressive behavior: ● ● ● ● ●

Observational Learning- Provides models and Role Models. Increased autonomic arousal. Causes habituation to violence (desensitization). Disinhibition (loss of inhibitory self-control). Priming Aggressive Thoughts.

➔ Anderson and Bushman (2002) found that college students who had just played a violent video game listed more aggressive actions, thoughts, and feelings in response to a story than did those who had played a nonviolent video game. Key Takeaways ➔ Not all learning can be explained through the principles of classical and operant conditioning. ➔ Insight is the sudden understanding of the components of a problem that makes the solution apparent.

➔ Latent learning refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so. ➔ Observational learning occurs by viewing the behaviors of others. ➔ Both aggression and altruism can be learned through observation.

7.4

8.1 Read what each is: Explicit memory are to hippocampus as implicit memories are to cerebellum Explicit is to implicit as hippocampus is to cerebellum No attention no memory Memory is necessary for memory Context dependant memory - You learn in this room if you do better if test in this room Death by stroke not homicide availability

Chapter 9 Definition of intelligence Fluid intelligence - goes down with age Crystili - goes up by age Monozygotic - Correlation between IQ is closer Stangor- doesn't believe IQ levels are explained by culture Text is valid- test if they actually test if they are trying to test 9 not 8 of garden theory of multiple intelligences May give an example of person then ask how they are intelligent Chronological age- actual age. Mental age- age of mental. (mental age/chronological age)*100= IQ he will give a age and the mental age.

Oth nature and nature cause intelligence As DNA goes down iq correlation goes down Women surpass men in verbal ability and emotional intelligence And men surpass women in math skills and spatial ability Your text suggest that overall differences READ BOOK 9.3: 4/9/19 Components and structure of language Psycho linguistics Must have three components - semanticity - meaningful symbols - infinite creativity - original sentences - displacement - “talk” about objects & events in another time & place. *Theories of Language Acquisition* in book make sure understand. Skipped to slide 13: Nature vs. Nurture again Nurture - principles of learning, such as association, reinforcement, and observation. - Associated with Skinner - modify their language based on imitation, reinforcement and shaping - learn too fast for it to occur solely through reinforcement. - Deaf children will create their own if parents don’t use ASL

Nature - Associated with Chomsky - Human brains include a language acquisition device, which includes a universal grammar underlying all human language. Bilingual - Two languages - Better cognitive function - Cognitive flexibility - Your text states that in early the bilingual are in a social economic status. Verbal

skills less and performed less in their academic performance. Not there bilingualism but by their poverty ➡Some early psychological research showed that, when compared with monolingual children,bilingual children performed more slowly when processing language, and their verbal scores were lower. But these tests were frequently given in English, even when this was not the child’s first language, and the children tested were often of lower socioeconomic status than the monolingual children SES is a “Confounding” variable Chapter 10.1: Emotion and motivation Theories of emotion******** Know them by the authors James - lange theory - Something happens then you fix situation then you feel emotion about it - Ex: skid in car: You start to skid you fix car then you get scared and feel lots of emotion Cannon - Bard Theory - D Schachter - Singer Theory of Cognitive Appraisal aka “two factor theory” The negative effects of stress Know the stages in order Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome ➔ Alarm Reaction: Mainly sympathetic arousal ➔ Resistance Stage: (adaptation stage) Response to Chronic “Stressors” Cortisol ➔ Exhaustion Stage: mainly parasympathetic arousal and “diseases of adaptation.” Responses to Stress ➢ Fight or Flight Response ➢ Tend and Befriend Response JAMES PINABACKER: 1986 SHARE EMOTIONS DON’T HOLD IN EITHER MOST TRAUMATIC OR TRAVEL TOPICS HIGHER BLOOD PRESSURE and negative mood for those who wrote about traumatic but less likely to visit health clinic for mental illness Hypothalamus - if ruined u dont know when to stop eating

Lateral - Start eating Ventromedial - Stop eating Bulimia- Low body weight

Second order conditioning

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