Psychology glossary PDF

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Scientific theory : a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time; best understanding of that part of natural world Empirical method : acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities Ology : suffix that denotes “scientific study of” Psyche : Greek word for soul Introspection : a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible Structuralism : focused on understanding the conscious experience through introspection Functionalism : emphasized how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment Adaptation : that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected ID : unconscious part that is the cauldron of raw drives ex. sex ,aggression Ego : (conscious and unconscious elements) the rational and reasonable part of personality; its role is to maintain contact with the outside world to keep the individual in touch with society, and to do this it mediates between the conflicting tendencies of the id and the superego Superego : a person’s conscience, develops early in life , is learned from parents, teachers, and others Psychoanalytic theory : focus on the role of the unconscious and childhood experiences in affecting conscious behavior Behaviorism : focus on observing and controlling behavior through what is observable; emphasis on learning and conditioning Humanism : perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans; rejects that psychology should focus on problems and disorders

Cognitive psychology : focuses not just on behavior, but on mental processes and internal mental states; focuses on studying thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and actions American Psychological Association : professional organization representing psychologists in the United States Biopsychology : study of how biology influences behavior Evolutionary psychology : seeks to understand human behavior as the result of psychological adaptation and natural selection Natural selection : a process by which heritable traits conferring survival and reproductive advantage to individuals tend to be passed on to succeeding generations and become more frequent in a population Developmental psychology : scientific study of development across a lifespan Personality psychology : study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique Personality trait : consistent pattern of thought and behavior Biopsychosocial model : perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health Clinical psychology : area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior Forensic psychology : area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system Sport and exercise psychology : area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities Empirical : grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing Fairness : implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis Falsifiable : able to be disproven by experimental results

Hypothesis : tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables Predictability : implies that a theory should enable us to make predictions about future events Theory : well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena Verifiability : an experiment must be replicable by another researcher Debriefing : when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion Deception : purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment Informed consent : process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) : committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving animal participants Institutional Review Board (IRB) : committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants Clinical or case study : observational research study focusing on one or a few people Correlational research : tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables Descriptive research : research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables; they are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured Experimental research : tests a hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships Generalize : inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

Inter-rater reliability : measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event Naturalistic observation : observation of behavior in its natural setting Observer bias : when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations Population : overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in Sample : subset of individuals selected from the larger population Survey : list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people Archival research : method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships Attrition : reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time Cross-sectional research : compares multiple segments of a population at a single time Longitudinal research : studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time Cause-and-effect relationship : changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design Confirmation bias : tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs Confounding variable : unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables Correlation : relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does Correlation coefficient : number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

Illusory correlation : seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists Negative correlation : two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation Positive correlation : two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller Control group : serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups Dependent variable : variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had Double-blind study : experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments Experimental group : group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance Experimenter bias: researcher expectations skew the results of the study Independent variable : variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group Operational : description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables Participants : subjects of psychological research Placebo effect: people’s expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation Random assignment : method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group Random sample : subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Replicate : repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability Single-blind study : experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group Statistical analysis : determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance Axon : major extension of the soma Dendrite : branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons Glial cell : nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport Myelin sheath : fatty substance that insulates axons Neuron : cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system Neurotransmitter : chemical messenger of the nervous system Receptor : protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach Semipermeable membrane : cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules Soma : cell body Synapse : small gap between two neurons where communication occurs Synaptic vesicle : storage site for neurotransmitters Action potential : electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon Agonist : drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter All-or-none: phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation

Antagonist: drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter Biological perspective: view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems Depolarization: when a cell’s charge becomes positive, or less negative Hyperpolarization: when a cell’s charge becomes more negative than its resting potential Membrane potential: difference in charge across the neuronal membrane Neuron: cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system Neurotransmitter: chemical messenger of the nervous system Psychotropic medication : drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance Receptor: protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach Resting potential : the state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals Reuptake : neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it Semipermeable membrane : cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules Synapse : small gap between two neurons where communication occurs Synaptic vesicle : storage site for neurotransmitters Terminal button: axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles Threshold of excitation : level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active Autonomic nervous system: controls our internal organs and glands Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord

Fight or flight response: activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety Homeostasis: state of equilibrium—biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels Parasympathetic nervous system: associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body Peripheral nervous system (PNS): connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body Somatic nervous system: relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS Sympathetic nervous system: involved in stress-related activities and functions Adrenal gland: sits atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved in the stress response Diabetes: disease related to insufficient insulin production Endocrine system: series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones Gonad: secretes sexual hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior Hormone: chemical messenger released by endocrine glands Pancreas: secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar Pituitary gland: secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the activity of other glands in the endocrine system Thyroid: secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite Corpus callosum: thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres Gyrus (plural: gyri): bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex

Hemisphere: left or right half of the brain Lateralization: concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions Longitudinal fissure: deep groove in the brain’s cortex Sulcus (plural: sulci):depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex Auditory cortex: strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information Broca’s area: region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production Cerebral cortex: surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities Forebrain: largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures Frontal lobe: part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex Motor cortex: strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement Occipital lobe: part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex Parietal lobe: part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex Prefrontal cortex: area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning Somatosensory cortex: essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain Temporal lobe: part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex Wernicke’s area: important for speech comprehension Amygdala: structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

Cerebellum: hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory Cerebral cortex: surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities Forebrain: largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures Hindbrain: division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum Hippocampus: structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory Hypothalamus: forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system Limbic system: collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory Medulla: hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate Midbrain: division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation Pons: hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep Reticular formation: midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity Thalamus: sensory relay for the brain Ventral tegmental area (VTA): midbrain structure where dopamine is produced: associated with mood, reward, and addiction Computerized tomography (CT) scan: imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area Electroencephalography (EEG): recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged Positron emission tomography (PET) scan: involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain Adoption study: a behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents Behavioral genetics: the empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior Heritability coefficient: an easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals Quantitative genetics: scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms Twin studies: a behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins Allele: specific version of a gene Chromosome: long strand of genetic information Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs Dominant allele: allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele Genetic environmental correlation: view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes Genotype: genetic makeup of an individual Heterozygous: consisting of two different alleles

Homozygous: consisting of two identical alleles Mutation: sudden, permanent change in a gene Phenotype: individual’s inheritable physical characteristics Polygenic: multiple genes affecting a given trait Recessive allele: allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele Theory of evolution by natural selection: states that organisms that are better suited for their environments will survive and reproduce compared to those that are poorly suited for their environments Epigenome: a dynamic layer of information associated with DNA that differs between individuals and can be altered through various experiences and environments Epigenetics: study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes Fraternal twins: twins who develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so their genetic material varies the same as in non-twin siblings Gene: sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics Identical twins: twins that develop from the same sperm and egg Range of reaction: asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our ...