Psychology Modules 1-4 PDF

Preview

Summary

Download Psychology Modules 1-4 PDF

Description

1. Empirical approach – evidence based method that draws an observation and experimentation 2. Critical thinking – thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions a. Curiosity + skepticism + humility 3. Structuralism – used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind a. Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener 4. Functionalism a. Explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish 5. Behaviorism a. View that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. b. Psychologists only agree that psychology should be an objective science and not the rest 6. Humanistic Psychology a. Historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential 7. Cognitive psychology a. The study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn remember, think, communicate, and solve problems 8. Cognitive neuroscience a. Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition 9. Psychology – the science of behavior and mental processes 10. Nature-nurture issue a. Longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture 11. Natural selection a. Principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations 12. Evolutionary psychology a. The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection 13. Behavior genetics a. The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior 14. Culture a. The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next 15. Positive psychology a. Scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

16. Levels of analysis a. The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to socialcultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon 17. Biopsychosocial approach a. Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socialcultural levels of analysis 18. Basic research a. Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base 19. Applied research a. Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems 20. Counseling psychology a. A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being 21. Clinical psychology a. A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders 22. Psychiatry a. A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy 23. Community psychology a. A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups 24. Testing effect a. Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning 25. SQ3R a. A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review 26. Hindsight bias a. The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it 27. Theory a. An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events 28. Hypothesis a. A testable prediction often implied by a theory 29. Operational Definition a. A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study. 30. Replication a. Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced 31. Case study

a. A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles 32. Naturalistic observation a. A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation 33. Survey a. Descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group 34. Random sample a. A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion 35. Population a. All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn 36. Correlation a. A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other 37. Correlation coefficient a. A statistical index of the relationship between two things 38. Variable a. Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure 39. Scatterplot a. A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter means high correlation) 40. Illusory correlation a. Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship 41. Regression towards the mean a. The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average 42. Experiment a. A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors 43. Experimental group a. In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable 44. Control group a. In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment 45. Random assignment

a. Assigned participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups 46. Double blind procedure a. An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about wheter the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. 47. Placebo effect a. Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent 48. Independent variable a. In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied 49. Confounding variable a. A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results 50. Dependent variable a. In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated 51. Informed consent a. Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate 52. Debriefing a. The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants 53. Mode a. Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution 54. Mean a. The arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores 55. Median a. The middle score In a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it 56. Range a. The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution 57. Standard deviation a. A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score 58. Normal curve (normal distribution) a. A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and few and few near the extremes 59. Statistical significance a. A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance 60. Biological psychology a. The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

61. Plasticity a. The brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience 62. Neuron a. A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system 63. Cell Body a. The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center 64. Dendrites a. Neurons often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body 65. Axon a. The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands 66. Myelin sheath a. A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next 67. Glial cells (glia) a. Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory 68. Action potential a. A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon 69. Threshold a. The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse 70. Refractory period a. In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state 71. All-or-none response a. A neuron’s reaction of either firing with full strength or not firing 72. Synapse a. The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron 73. Neurotransmitters a. Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse 74. Reuptake a. A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron 75. Endorphins a. Netural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to please 76. Agonist a. A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

77. Antagonist a. A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action 78. Nervous system a. The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems 79. Central Nervous system (CNS) a. The brain and spinal cord 80. Peripheral Nervous System a. The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body 81. Nerves a. Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs 82. Sensory (afferent) neurons a. Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord 83. Motor (efferent) neurons a. Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands 84. Interneurons a. Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs 85. Somatic nervous system a. The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles 86. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) a. The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; parasympathetic division calms 87. Sympathetic nervous system a. The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy 88. Parasympathetic nervous system a. The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy 89. Reflex a. A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response 90. Endocrine system a. The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream 91. Hormones a. Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

92. Adrenal glands a. A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress 93. Pituitary gland a. The endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands - Aristotle o theorize about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality - Plato o Assumed that we inherit character and intelligence and that certain ideas are inborn - Wilhelm Wundt – first psychology laboratory in Germany’s University of Leipzig o Machine that measure how long a person would respond by pressing a telegraph key after a ball hit a platform o Seeking to measure “atoms of the mind” - Edward Bradford Titchener o Aimed to discover the mind’s structure o Engaged people in introspection (looking inward) - William James o Consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings o Thinking developed because it was adaptive - Mary Whiton Calkins o Distinguished memory researcher o Harvard refused to give her the Ph.D. Degree she earned o American Psychological Association’s (APA’s) first female president - Margaret Floy Washburn o First official female psychology Ph.D. o The Animal Mind – influential book o second female APA president in 1921 - John B. Watson and B.F Skinner o 1920s o Dismissed introspection o Redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior” - Sigmund Freud o 1856-1939 o Freudian Psychology  Emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior - Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow o 1960s o Humanistic psychologists

-

-

-

-

Ivan Pavlov o Learning Jean Piaget o Most influential observer of children Biological Influences o Genetic predispositions (genetically influenced traits) o Genetic mutations (random errors in gene replication) o Natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations o Genes responding to the environment Psychological influences o Learned fears and other learned expectations o Emotional responses o Cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations Social-cultural influences o Presence of others o Cultural, societal, and family expectations o Peer and other group influences o Compelling models Neuroscience – how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences Evolutionary – how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes Behavior genetics – How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences Psychodynamic – How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts Behavioral – How we learn observable responses Cognitive – How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information Social-cultural – How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures Descriptive – to observe and record behavior Correlational – to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another Experimental - To explore cause and effect

Module 4 Notes - Action potential travels down neuron in one direction toward the terminal branches o Transfer the messages to other neurons - Myelin sheath – covers the axon and helps speed neural impulses - Glial cells – provide nutrients and insulating myelin, guide neural connections, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters - Neuron fires o If Neuron stimulation causes a brief change in electrical charge. Axon opens its gates, positive charged sodium ions (Na+) flood in and produces a momentary depolarization (ACTION POTENTIAL)

-

-

-

-

-

o (DEPOLARIZATION) – Neighboring gate open up and positively charged sodium ions flow in while the other gates in the first part of the axon open and alslow positively charged potassium ions (K+) to flow out o Action potential moves speedily down the axon, sodium potassium pumps in the cell membrane finish restoring the first section of the axon to its resting potential Neurons communication o Electrical impulses travel down a neuron’s axon until reaching a tiny junction known as a synapse o Action potential reaches the end terminal, stimulates release of neurotransmitter molecules. Molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron. Allows electrically charged atoms to enter the receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new action potential o Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed, drift away, or broken down by enzymes Antidepressant o Selective Serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRI) – relieve depression by partially blocking reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin NEUROTRANSMITTERS o Acetylcholine (ACh)  Enables muscle action, learning, and memory o Dopamine  Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion o Serotonin  Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal o Norepinephrine  Helps control alertness and arousal o GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)  A major inhibitory neurotransmitter o Glutamate  A major excitatory neurotransmitter  Involved in memory o Endorphins  Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure Nervous system o Central (Brain and spinal cord) o Peripheral  Autonomic (controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands)  Sympathetic (arousing)  Parasympathetic (Calming)  Somatic  Sensory input  Motor output (controls skeletal muscles) Endocrine system o Hypothalamus

 Brain region controlling the pituitary gland o Pituitary gland  Secretes growth hormone that stimulates physical development  Oxytocin – enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing, and orgasm  Also promotes pair bonding, group cohesion, and social trust  MASTER GLAND – secretions used to direct other endocrine glands to release their hormones  Triggers your sex glands to release sex hormones-> influences brain and behavior  Stressful event -> trigger hypothalamus to instruct pituitary to release a hormone that causes your adrenal glands to flood your body with cortisol (stress hormone that increase blood sugar) o Thyroid gland  Affects metabolism o Parathyroid  Help regulate the level of calcium in the blood o Adrenal Glands  Inner part helps trigger the “fight-or-flight” response  Release epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline)  Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar o Pancreas  Regulates the level of sugar in the blood o Testis  Secretes male sex hormones o Ovary  Secretes female sex hormones...