Quiz 2 HGMD - Lecture notes 3-4 PDF

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Biweekly quizes are taken for this course and quiz 2 is content from week/lecture 3-4. I used these notes to study from....

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LECTURE 3 Maternal Perspective -

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Motor development driven by maturation of systems (neural system is important) o Genetics and heredity Minimal influence of environment o The environment may speed it up or slow it down but can’t change a biologically determined course Characteristics of motor development o Qualitative o Discontinuous

History of the Maturational Perspective -

1930’s: Gesell, McGraw Suggested invariable, genetically determines sequence of development (individuals can have unique timing in when they develop their motor skills) Research: co-twin control strategy

Maturationists’ Interest in Process -

McGraw (1935) associated motor behaviour changes with development of nervous system Posited that advancement in CNS triggers appearance of new skill

Mary Shirley -

Outlined the sequence of motor milestones Longitudinally followed 25 infants  walking, crawling, cruising, creeping Maturationist

Johnny and Jimmy (Myrtle McGraw) -

In 1935, 2 twin brothers were observed for 22 months to determine a normal progression in motor development Johnny: was given toys and stimulation, practice, and experience in movement activities Jimmy: was given few toys and had minimal movement experience

Myrtle McGraw -

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Johnny and Jimmy Woods, twin study Her studies demonstrated that early stimulation accelerates motor development o Allowing infants to learn challenging skills, such as swimming and roller skating, and to solve problems that require judgement and deliberation One of the first to say that development wasn’t predetermined by genes o Complex interactions of the brain, genes and the environment

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Although training had some effects on the quality and initial performance of Johnny’s movements, in the long run, intensive training did not make a big difference Emphasized the role of maturation Cannot separate learning vs maturation Explanation: o Attitude: Johnny was successful at roller skating at 11 months. He became reckless soon after, causing his performance to decline. Jimmy was frequently uncooperative, which hampered his performance in descending sloped and jumping o Practice: Johnny descended sloped much better than his brother jimmy and developed clever strategies in the process. Jimmy, who has minimal early practice at such skills, was much less capable and very timid in his performance o Readiness: johnny was introduced to tricycling when he was 11 months old. He was incapable of much success at the skill until 8 months later. Jimmy was given a tricycle at 22 months and tricycled immediately, despite his lack of early stimulation. According to McGraw, Jimmy exhibited a readiness for tricycling at 22 months, which Johnny did not have at 11 months o Growth: Johnny roller skated well when he was 11 months old but declined in his ability thereafter. This regression was attributed to his attitude and his increasing height (center of gravity), which impeded his balance o Level of Fixity: both twins maintained their tricycling ability well, despite a period of nonparticipation. McGraw attributed this to their high levels of performance (level of fixity) at the time the skill was discontinued

Long-Lasting Beliefs from Maturation Theory -

Basic motor skills emerge automatically There is no need for special training Mild deprivation does not arrest development The nervous system is important

How would a Maturationist Explain the Following? -

Toddler learning to walk Child riding a bike Teenager having difficulty swimming

Why Developmental Theories -

Provide a framework for understanding important phenomena Raise crucial questions about human nature

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Motivate new research studies that lead to a better understanding

Why not just 1 Theory? -

Because child development is complex and varied process, no single theory accounts for all of it o Theories of cognitive and social development, ie focus on different capabilities

Cognition -

A generic term that refers to many processes of the mind that lead to “knowing” Includes: remembering, symbolizing, categorizing, solving problems, creating, fantasizing, dreaming, etc

Cognitive and Motor Domains -

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Evolution of Domains: categorizing human behaviour into domains evolved because it is useful in organizing and simplifying the study of human development Cognitive and motor development interact continually throughout the lifespan as they reciprocally inhibit or facilitate each other

Interaction -

Cognitive development and motor development o Cerebellum and prefrontal cortex, intertwined and interact with one another to enhance each other

Psychomotor or Motor? -

Psychomotor: interaction between mind (psycho) and movement (motor) o Stimulus comes from higher brain centers Motor: any human movement, initiated from lower brain, includes reflexive movement

Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development -

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Cornell University, 1964 Swiss psychologist interested in the process of thinking, established the clinical method of research, collected data in children question-and-answer session Interested in evolutionary biology, interest in psychology began in Paris while visiting Alfred Binet’s lab Piaget began to notice how strange and creative children’s answers were, fascinated by their illogical answer they gave, his goal was to provide a biological account of the origins of knowledge

View of Children’s Nature

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Jean Piaget’s theory remains the standard against which all other theories are judged o Often labeled constructivist because it depicts children as constructing knowledge for themselves Children are seen as: active, learning many important lessons on their own, intrinsically motivated to learn

Central Development Issues -

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Nature and Nurture o Piaget believed that nature and nurture interact to yield cognitive development  Adaptation: the tendency to respond to the demands of the environment to meet one’s goals  Organization: tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge Source of Continuity o Three processes work together from birth to propel development forward  Assimilation: the process by which people translate incoming info into a form they can understand  Accommodation: the process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences  Equilibration: the process by which people balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding

Piaget: Learning -

Equilibrium (stable understanding) of assimilation (integrating reality into one’s own view) and accommodation (changing one’s view to match with reality)

Components of the Process of Adaptation -

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Assimilation: children try to interpret new experiences based on their present interpretation of the world o Child tries to grab a large ball with one hand  their experiences of the past tell them that they can use one hand to grab hold of an object because it worked with rattles and smaller objects  the child assimilates his past experiences  past experiences told them they can grab it with one hand even though its too big Accommodation: children try to adjust existing view through structures to account for (accommodate) new experiences

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Using the example, when the child is unable to grasp the large ball, they may try to adjust or accommodate by using two hands or even adapting the one hand grasp

Piaget’s Cognitive Development -

Sensorimotor: birth  2 years o Infants know the world through their senses and through their actions, ie they learn what dogs look like and what petting them feels like o Over the course of the first 2 years, infants sensorimotor intelligence develops tremendously o Always putting things in their mouth  Substage 1 Exercise of Reflexes: birth  1 month  Infants begin to modify the reflexes with which they are born to make them more adaptive  Repetition of reflexes helps child to form the foundation for cognitive understanding. Reflexive movements do not need higher brain centers to be initiated. Reflexive movements lead to new behaviours  Substage 2 Primary Circular Reactions: 1  4 months  Infants begin to organize separate reflexes into larger behaviours, most of which are centered on their own bodies  Onset of increased voluntary movement. Consciously create movement. Called circular and primary because movements always occur in close proximity to the infant  Substage 3 Secondary Circular Reactions: 4  8 months  Infants becoming increasingly interested in the world around them, by the end of this substage, object permeances, the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view, typically emerges  Continuation of primary reactions, the infants interaction with the environment expands, child begins to integrate vision, hearing, grasping, and movement behaviours. Can imitate behaviours. No permanence, remove object and object is gone  Substage 4 Secondary Schemata: 8  12 months  During this substage children made the A not B error, the tendency to reach to where objects have been found before, rather than to where they were last hidden  Child reaches out for where the object was previously and not where it is last placed  Past movement actions applied to new situations, new behaviours emerge. New behaviours are facilitated by increasing movement capabilities such as crawling and

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creeping which allow exploration of the environment. Repetition of experimentation and trial and error exploration continue  Child can predict come actions and situations. Roll ball to child he crudely roles it back, he anticipates you rolling the ball to him again. The ability to predict is the onset of intellectual reasoning  Substage 5 Tertiary Circular Reactions: 12  18 months  Toddlers begin to actively and avidly explore the potential uses to which objects can be put  Use of active experimentation to learn, child realizes that discovery of an object and use of the object are separate entities, first level of visualizing an object beyond its immediate use  Child sees the ball and knows she can have fun, but also realizes she does not have to play with it right now and it will be there later. Can distinguish self from others. Seeks immediate family members for help, social and emotional development  Substage 6 Invention of new means through Mental Combinations: 18  24 months  Infants become able to form enduring mental representations, the first sign to this capacity is deferred imitation, the repetition of other people’s behaviour a substantial time after it occurred  Child recognizes objects and others as independent from herself, child is beginning to understand properties of objects (size, shape, colour, texture, weights, use, etc)  Semi-mental functioning (“thinking with the body” is replaced with “thinking with the mind”), and child reflects o Summary: increasing awareness of the difference between the self and others. Recognition that objects continue to exist even though they are no longer in view. Production of the mental images that allow the contemplation of the past, present, and future Preoperational: 2  7 years o Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery, they also begin to be able to see the world from other people’s perspectives, not just from their own o Verbal communication begins to emerge, language development is the most important aspect of preoperational stage, walking facilitates language development, and children are unable to think logically

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A mix of impressive cognitive acquisitions and equally impressive limitations  A notable acquisition is symbolic representation, use of one object to stand for another, which makes a variety of new behaviours possible. Use one thing to represent something else, pretending to use something to be something else  One major limitation is egocentrism, the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view, world revolves around you  A related limitation is centration, the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event  Preoperational children also lack understanding of the conservation concept, the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects doesn’t not change their key properties  Egocentric conversations: focused on what they are saying and not so much about having a conversation back and forth, no concept in realizing that the other person is not interested in what they are saying  Preconceptual Substage: 2  4 years o Ability to use symbol to represent someone or something in the child’s life, pretend play is common, egocentrism o Flawed Thinking: dropping flower is sad (unrealistic), can’t think of another reason for that to happen o Transductive Reasoning: missed breakfast, so it can’t be morning  Intuitive Substage: 4  7 years o Reduced egocentrism, improvement in the use of symbols, child is incapable of “conversation” (ability to recognize that certain properties of a substance remain unchanged when the appearance is rearranged), child cannot consider multiple aspects of a problem Procedures used to Test Conservation: the same amount of liquid being poured from a short wide glass into a small and skinny glass Piaget’s 3 Mountain Task: children having trouble thinking from another person’s point of view, by 7 or 8 they can pick out the doll’s point of view where before they would only pick what they can see. Then they will pick something else that they don’t see but not necessarily what the doll see’s Summary: 2nd stage of cognitive development, emphasized use of symbols and language development. 2 substages = preconceptual and

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intuitive. Piaget emphasizes the limitations in a child’s cognitive development Concrete Operational: 7  12 years o Children become able to think logically, not just intuitively, they now can classify objects into coherent categories and understand that events are often influences by multiple factors, not just one o Follows conservation, enhanced ability to decenter attention from one variable in a problem-solving situation. Reversibility = able to mentally modify, organize, or even reverse thought process. Limited to thinking about objects, events, or situations that are real o Seriation: ability to arrange a set of variables by a certain characteristic, ie height or shape o Piaget emphasized that learning can be enhanced through movement o Children being to reason logically, they can solve conservation problems, but their successful reasoning is largely limited to concrete situations. Thinking systematically remains difficult Formal Operational: 12+ years, early to mid-adolescence o Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is, this allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction as well as to engage in scientific reasoning o Ability to consider ideas that are not based on observable objects or experiences, abstract ideas are possible, highest stage of cognitive ability o Enhanced Level of Cognitive Ability: allows child to relate one or more parts of a proposition or situation to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: a problem-solving style that allows child to choose between possible solutions and then pick the best one, arise in emotional development and emerging values. Child ponders “do I follow the crowd, do I want to fit in?” o Cognitive development culminates in the ability to think abstractly to reason hypothetically, individuals can imagine alterative worlds and reason systematically about all possible outcomes of a situation. Piaget believed that the attainment of the formal operations stage, in contrast to the other stages, is not universal (not everyone will get there)

Piaget’s Legacy -

Although Piaget’s theory remains highly influential, some weaknesses are now apparent o The stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more consistent than it is o Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized

Piaget’s theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development o Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive process that give rise to children’s thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth Criticism’s of Piaget’s Theory o Lacks scientific control o Piaget used his own children to study the stages o Subject’s were not studied across the lifespan to get a better idea o Piaget may have underestimated a child’s capabilities o Theory does not discern between competency and performance, in a stage or are you performing at the higher or lower end of it o Theory does not account for the influence of motivation and emotion o Stages of development were too broad o Development is described, but never explained o Most criticized aspect of the theory is that formal operational thought can be achieved as early as 11 or 12 years of age  No account for adult development, even though we know cognitive development continues throughout adulthood o Child may have been completely competent, but due to motivational or emotional circumstances could not perform the task well o

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NATURE VS NURUTE -

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The nature vs nurture debate is concerned with the extent to who which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited (ie genetic) or acquired (ie learned) characteristics. The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution that both influence made to human behaviour “motor development is a complex process influenced by numerous factors within the biology of the individual, the conditions of the learning environment, and the requirements of the movement task: all of whuch profoundly influence the products of developmental change. Motor development, individual task, and environment and think of it as a nature and nurture way”

Nature -

Is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors

Nurture -

Is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, ie the product of exposure, experience, and learning on an individual

How do we apply this debate to Motor Development? -

Learning how to walk: what is the role of the environment? What is the role of your culture? What is the role of your genes? Playing sports: if your parents were athletes are going to be an athlete? What about where you live? What about socio-economic status? “both the processes and the products of motor development are influences by a wide variety of factors operating in isolation and in conjunction with one another”

Factors within the Individual -

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Developmental Direction: o Cephalocaudal: progression from head to tail o Proximodistal: progression from center to periphery Growth Rate: self-regulatory fluctuation, developmental plasticity Reciprocal Interweaving: differentiation and integration Learning Readiness: developmental convergence and biological/environmental/physical Critical and Sensitive Learning Periods: narrow vs broad time frames Individual Differences: the mythical “average” Phylogeny and Ontogeny: o Phytogenic: skills are resistant to external environmental influences o Ontogenetic: skills depend on learning and environmental opportunities

Factors Within the Environment -

Infant Bonding: imprinting vs sensitive periods, long term outcomes Stimulation and Deprivation: Johnny and Jimmy experiment, extreme conditions, devel...