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Complete lecture notes from Fall 2018 term....

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RCM 300

Effective Communication for Professionals

Fall 2018

What is communication? ● Sharing of ideas and info through collaboration (each other) ● Confidence ● Professionalism ● Body language ● transfer/receive info through reading, writing, verbally ● verbal /non verbal exchange of info Shannon-weaver model

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Biasses Language Tone (attitude)

Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle

Accidental Communication ● Occurs when speaker/writer sends a message that he didn’t intend to send, and doesn’t realise he has sent ● “People communicate their interests, their needs, their backgrounds, and sometimes their weaknesses without having the slightest desire to do so, and often in spite of a definite desire not  to communicate these things”

Expressive Communication ● Focuses on speaker or writer’s needs -- is “source centred” not audience centred ● Purpose is to express what the speaker/writer NEEDS to say, rather than what the audience needs to hear ● Performs as emotional venting in many cases ● Relies on impulse rather than rational choice ● Does not recognize the needs, expectations or values of an audience ● Is not interested in benefiting audience ● Often results in damaging professional relationships and discrediting speaker/writer Rhetorical Communication ● Builds relation ● Is purposeful ○ Is goal-oriented ○ Seeks to achieve change in the world ○ Is intentional ● Connects speaker’s purpose to audience’s needs ● Teaches that speaker must focus on making conscious and conscientious choices when addressing an audience ● Depends on speaker’s understanding of adapting message to audience ● Relies on speaker’s skill at being able to understand an audience’s values, expectations and beliefs ● Relies on speaker’s respect for audience, belief in message and purpose, and sincerity ● Stresses the ethical relationship amongst speaker, audience, and massage. Aristotle’s Definition of Rhetoric (330 BCE) ⇒ The art (faculty, technique, skill) of finding (observing, discovering) in any given situation the available (appropriate) means of persuasion. Modes of Appeal ⇒ Aristotle ● Tools to design a message ● Strategies for composing a message Logos Appeal (message)⇒ well structured, well supported and well positioned argument. ● ● ●

How you design your message How to decide which claims to use - what evidence to use Choosing arguments your audience will find relevant

Pathos (audience)⇒ arguments that connect to your audience’s needs, values, expectations, and emotions. ● Arguments to excite interest in your topic

Ethos (speaker) ⇒ character and habit ●

Appeals based on establishing good will, good character, and good judgment

Who is saying what to whom for what purpose? Axiom Nine Axioms - MacLennan A generally accepted principle that is the basis of action ● The axioms of communication describe how communication works ● We can ignore them, but they don’t stop governing interactions Interaction - people interpret messages ● Machines encode and decode messages; unless there is some interference, the message that is sent is the same message that is received ● People interpret messages; what the speaker means to say is seldom exactly the same message that the audience received ● Because communication involves people, we must be careful to limit the chances for misinterpretation Relation - footing ● In addition to ensuring that the correct information is received, we must also be careful that we are sending the correct message about our relationship with our audience ● Footing ○ The socially-accepted authority to speak in a given situation ○ The foundation upon which our credibility rests Context - “stew” - are particular stew of people, place, tone .etc (appropriate) ● Context helps determine what is appropriate ● Even when the speaker and audience remain the same, the design of the message may have to change in a new situation ● We must adapt tone, style and content to the situation Credibility - ● First impressions are based largely upon communication ● Our assessment of others’ ability, knowledge, and skills is significantly affected by their communication Influence - co-operate ● We get what we want in the world by attaining it ourselves or by persuading others to give it to us ● We can persuade others by force or by communication ● Most of what we have, we have persuaded others to help us get

Risk - Relation, credibility, and influence are all at risk when our communication fails ● Communication cannot always make something better; communication can almost always make something worse ● Face ○ Our sense of self-worth in a given situation ○ The self that we wish to be accepted as ● Face Risk ○ How public it is ○ Increases with audience and authority Ambiguity - our delivery of a message can be interpreted in more than the way we mean it to be, causing a misinterpretation of the message ● Because people interpret, often communication is not as clear as we want it to be ● Sometimes our delivery contradicts the content of the message ● Delivery tends to be trusted more than actual content Audience ● Communication involves adapting to help the audience interpret a message, creating relation, understanding footing and face issues of the situation, and influencing people to change their minds (actions) ● If we don’t focus on the audience, we will do some or all of these poorly. Pervasive - you cannot not communicate ● Humans are always interpreting behaviour as having meaning ● If a channel of communication is open, then any refusal to communicate will be read as meaning something. The Rhetorical Situation Rhetorical Situation ⇒ complex of persons, events, objects, relations, presents on exigence [problem] that can be remediated [solved/fixed] (removed) through action.  (pg 23) Bitzer Three Constituents: ● Rhetorical Exigence [problem] (pg 24) ○ Must be solvable ○ Must be something that can be solved with communication (discourse) ○ Sense of urgency - present tense ○ Something waiting to be done ● Rhetorical Audience (pg 24) ○ Must be able to take the action ○ Must be in a position to potentially be persuaded ● Constraints - limitations and opportunities that shape the message (pg 25) ○ Audience is a constraint - (footing, face, relation, credibility)

Booth - 3 corruptions 3 perversions 1. Pedant’s stance a. focussing on the message at the expense of audience connection 2. Advertiser’s Stance a. most unethical b. Focuses on audience reaction at the expense of the message and credibility 3. Entertainer’s stance a. Focuses on self and ignores message and audience b. Expressive communication

Memos ● Internal Letters ● External ● More formal ● Important audience ● Size of audience ● How long information lasts Be able to write a full block letter for exam E-mails ● * Cover letter 1. Identify the purpose a. Re: line should name the position and the reference number (if there is one in the job ad) b. Connect your career aspirations to the company’s future; show how you are the solution to their need c. Show knowledge about the industry or the company 2. Outline your relevant qualifications a. Clearly state that you meet the basic academic qualifications b. Highlight any specific qualifications that make you stand out 3. Emphasize your strengths a. Name a particular skills or trait that sets you apart b. Tell a story as evidence that your have employed that strength i. When and how you developed/demonstrated that skill 4. End on a positive note a. Refer the reader to your resume if you have not yet done so

b. Request an interview / refer that you are available for an interview c. Repeat your preferred contact information Resume ● Focused resume (functional) - skills based ● Chronological - data sheet ● Targeted resume - combination ○ Everything you put on your resume should have a PURPOSE! ■ Relevancy & recency ○ Personal section ○ Education ○ Relevant skills ■ Skills are things you can do - present tense ■ Abilities ○ Relevant (work) experience ○ Other experience or other work experience Job interviews What employers want to know ● Can you do the job? ● Are you willing to do the job? ● Can you fit in with the existing personnel and culture? What employers want to see ● Stability ● Initiative ● Dependability ● Responsibility ● Loyalty ● Honesty ● Personability ● Energy ● Enthusiasm ● Self-possession Always avoid: ● Answers that are too long or too short ● Disorganized behaviour ● Any behaviour in the extreme Appearance and Attitude Appearance: ● Dress appropriately

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Be punctual Go alone to the interview Shake hands with a firm, confident grip Don't chew gum or smoke Make eye contact while you speak Speak clearly and use correct grammar Watch your body language

Attitude: ● Avoid bragging or overstating your abilities ● Avoid one-word responses ● Don’t appear obsessed with money, benefits, or vacations ● Be courteous at all times and people ● Don't criticize former employers or supervisors

Midterm Memo: ● Introduction ● Exigence ● Theory ● Theory ● Conclusion Paragraph: ● Name the theory ● Name the theorist ● Define the theory ● Explain the theory ● Apply the theory

Who is saying what to whom and for what purpose? (and who benefits) Who - human - corporate ● Credentials ● Academic credentials ● Bias What ● References - documents ● Content - relevant infor ● Contradiction

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Fair assessment - does it recognize opposing points of view Emotionally manipulative

Whom ● diction/language Primary ● Artifact ● labs/experiments Secondary ● Peer reviewed ● What other people have said Guidelines for Effective Summarizing ● Goal - to condense the information found in sources; to record the gist of the idea without arguments, examples, or other departures from the main ideas ● Restate the author’s ideas or information in your own words - keep it brief ● Ensure that your summary accurately reflects the author’s ideas ● Leave out extended examples, illustrations, and long explanation Research Note Taking ● Summarizing ● Paraphrasing ● Quotins ○ Use direct quotes sparingly ○ Use primarily short quotes ○ Use the exact wording and punctuation from the source ○ Include a parenthetical reference before the period at the end of the quotation to refer the reader to the references page ○ Integrate quotations smoothly into your work so that your sentence is grammatically correct ○ Provide an explanation to place to quotation in context ○ Use ellipses when words or phrases are omitted from a quotation ○ Use square brackets to indicate any changes you’ve made in the word or ● In-text citation ○ Use an in-text citation when: ■ You quote directly from a source ■ You paraphrase someone else’s ideas ■ You summarize from a source ○ In-text citation consists of: ■ Author’s last name ■ Year of publication of the source from which you are citing ■ Page number of direct quotation

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■ Page number of paraphrase or summary Signal phrase ○ Introduces a quotation, paraphrase or summary ○ Is mandatory for paraphrases and summaries ○ Is optional for direct quotations ○ Contains a verb (fo example. States, explains, claims, demonstrates) and the name of the author or the name of the work ○ May provide context for the referenced material Graphics Plagiarism

Report Formats There are 4 basic report formats: ● Form reports ● Informal reports ● Semi-formal reports ● Formal reports Decide which format to use based on the following criteria: ● Purpose ○ The more important the information, the more formal the report ○ The longer the information will be relevant, the more formal the report ● Audience ○ The higher up in the organization Form reports: ● Used to ensure consistency when a large number of reports give the same information (ex. CACEE)\often used for recurring or periodic reports (ex. Expense reports, incident reports) Informal reports: ● Short reports, usually fewer than five pages ● Casual format with no title page or table of contents ● Often written as memo or letter ● Must follow the SIDCRA format ● Audience is small or not highly placed ● Does not deal with highly complex issues Semi-formal reports: ● Variation of informal report ● More formal header on first page instead of memo or letter format ● First page header lists:

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○ Organization’s name ○ Report title ○ Author’s name ○ Date Instead of RE: line uses the heading “summary” Usual length up to 10 pages

Formal reports: ● Three characteristics of a formal report: ○ Longer, more complex, lots of detail ● Usually more than 10 pgs long ● Makes use of headings, graphics and other design elements ● Title page Structure Introduction The introduction should include all of the following elements that are relevant: ● Description of the background that led to the exigence ● Statement o the purpose of the report ● Discussion of the significance of the topic ● Classification of the scope of the report ● Forecast of the organization of the report ● Statement of who gave authorization for the report ● Description of the sources and methods used to develop the findings ● Definition of key terms used in the report Body ● Main part of the report ● Presents the information needed to support the conclusions and recommendations ● Aimed at the most expert of expected readers, and in practice, few non-expert readers will read the full discussion or body ● Divided into logically-organized sections, each with its own heading ● Each section of the discussion is introduced with a heading which describes the content of the section; avoid using the heading “discussion” - use meaningful headings Conclusion ● Provides a convenient end summary of all the relevant facts/findings of the discussion or body section ● Presents a statement of the logical outcome of the information presented in the discussion ● Answers the questions: “what does this information mean for the reader?” and “what new thing does the reader know as a result of the information presented in the discussion?” ● Is often read independently from the report.

Summary ● Often read independently from the report Recommendations ● Are the writer’s opinion about what should happen next ● Are specific actions the writer thinks should be taken ● Should arise naturally from the conclusions ● Are often read independently from the report ● Tone is important; it is up to the reader to decide to take or to authorize the recommended action Appendices ● Anything that is attached to the report ● The more formal the report, the more likely it is to have appendices ● Includes information that is too long or too complex to include in the discussion that is tangential to the purpose ● Helps the reader to understand more fully by supplementing material in the text of the report ● Each discrete item is put in a separate appendix ● Appendices are labelled with upper case letters and each appendix is given a distinct name ● Information in the text should indicate to the reader that information is to be found in the appendices: “The electrical wiring schematic (Appendix C) shows...” Report to Write for Class Cover ● The jacket of the report ● Printed on good quality, heavy-stock paper ● Includes the name of the company and its logos ● States the title of the report ● May optionally include the author and date ● If a plastic report cover is used, a cover page with the above information must be produced Transmittal Document: ● May be a letter or memo, depending on the recipient of the report ● Describes the topic and reminds the reader of the authorization of the report ● Makes a brief statement of the major finding ● Acknowledges the help of others ● Expresses appreciation to the client and offers a follow-up to the report ● Maintains goodwill with the client.

Methods of Speech Delivery Impromptu ● Speaker is called upon with little or no warning ● Speaker talks about a topic that speaker knows well ● Speech is unprepared ● Speech is short Manuscript ● Speech is completely written out and read by the speaker ● Appropriate in situations when legal considerations require careful wording ● Not effective in persuasion because it does not take advantage of immediacy of the oral presentation opportunity ● Deadens relation because speech is written for projected audience rather than developed for the present audience. Memorized ● Speech is prepared and memorized before the speaking event ● Harms connection to audience even more than manuscript speech because focus of the speaker is on remembering rather than talking to the audience. Extemporaneous ● Argument, appeals, and organization are carefully planned in advance ● Speech is not  written out or memorized ● Speaker uses an outline of the argument on an index card as a memory aid ● The particular wording rises out of the moment of interaction between the speaker and the audience ● Interaction with the audience is enhanced by the natural and spontaneous quality of the delivery How to Organize Your Speech Survey ● Open with a hook (rhetorical question, story, stat, quote) ● State a purpose (what is the action?) ● Forecast main ideas Signpost ● Discuss ideas in the same order that your forecast them ● Signpost y our position in the speech (first, next, in addition, finally) ● Transition  between ideas by making connection clear ○ Consider using full sentences ○ Use known - new contract ● Connect each idea to the action

Summary ● Restate main ideas ● Restate action ● Introduce enabling device

Final Exam Part 1: Short Answer (10 Marks) ● Give theorist name ● Define theory ● Explain examples ● Show that you understand theory Part 2: Matching (20 Marks) ● 20 terms ● 3 terms will be left over Part 3: Editing (15 Marks) ● Rewrite document ○ Content ○ Tone ○ Format ○ Organization ○ Mechanics Part 4: Analyzing a Scenario (40 Marks) ● memo Part 5: Crafting an Effective Message (15 Marks)

Theory Summary ● Expressive communication - saying what is on your mind ● Accidental communication - accidentally saying something you didn’t mean to ● Rhetorical communication - planned, goal oriented, pragmatic (useful), purposeful Modes of Appeal [Aristotle] ● Tools or strategies ● Logos - logical development of message ● Pathos - connecting to your audience’s emotions, feelings, values, needs ● Ethos - good will, good character, good judgement

Axioms [MacLennan] Axioms describe the nature of communication I2C2R2A2P1 ● Influence ● Interpretation ● Context ● Credibility ● Risk ○ Face ○ Credibility ○ ● Relation ○ Footing ● Ambiguity ● Audience ● Pervasive The Rhetorical Stance [Booth] ● Advertiser ○ Manipulative ○ Unethical ● Pedant ○ Message at the expense of the audience relationship ● Entertainer The Rhetorical Situation [Bitzer] ● Rhetorical exigence ● Rhetorical audience ● Constraints Memo: ● Re line - be specifici, it is a summary of the memo ● Introduction - forecasting, purpose for memo ● Headings in memos good ● Conclusion Letter: ● ● ● ● ● ●

You adress 1 space Date 2 spaces Name and address of person writing to 2 spaces

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Greet person (do not use to whom it may concern) 1 space Re line 1 space Intro 1 space Body 1 space Good will to audience 1 space Sincerely and sign your name name...