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Does Soccer Training Reduce Gender Differences in Scores on a Mental Rotation Task...

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Does Soccer Training Reduce Gender Differences in Scores on a Mental Rotation Task

Abstract Past research has found there is a male advantage in spatial ability, particularly in mental rotation tasks, which can be eliminated through training in activities requiring spatial skills (Kruger & Suchan, 2016; Feng, Spence & Pratt, 2007). It has been shown that athletes perform better in mental rotation tasks (Habacha & Dosseville, 2014; Ozel Larue, & Molinaro, 2004) thus, the proposed experiment aims to test if sports training will eliminate the gender difference in mental rotation ability. Participants will be assigned to one of two conditions: training or non-training. The training group will take part in regular soccer training sessions for a 10-month period, while the non-training group will receive no training. Participants will complete a mental rotations task prior to, and following the 10-month period. It is hypothesised that in the training condition, participants’ mental rotation task scores will improve, and there will be no gender difference in performance.

Review Spatial ability is one’s capacity to understand and remember spatial information about objects and space, and is essential for success in many everyday tasks (Linn & Petersen, 1985). Research has widely shown that men tend to perform better in tasks involving spatial ability, particularly in mental rotation tasks (Linn & Petersen, 1985; Kruger & Suchan, 2016; David, 2012). The cause of this gender difference is unknown, but it has been suggested that differences in spatial experience could influence spatial ability, and that males participate in spatial activities such as video games and sports more often than females, which promote the development of spatial skills (Chrisler & McCreary, 2010). It has, however, been found that training in sports requiring high spatial ability can improve spatial skills (Habacha & Dosseville, 2014; Ozel, Larue, & Molinaro, 2004), and further research suggests that specific training can reduce the gender gap for spatial tasks, so that gender difference in performance is not seen in experts (Kass, Ahlers, & Dugger, 1998; Kruger & Suchan, 2016). These findings could imply that the gender difference in a spatial task such as a mental rotations task could be eliminated through training in a sport, although more research is necessary for any conclusions to be made. Kruger and Suchan (2016) conducted a study in which aviation security screeners and controls completed a mental rotations task involving figures composed of different arrangements of cubes. Aviation security screeners must perform mental rotations in order to identify prohibited items in x-ray images, so can be considered experts. In each trial, participants were presented with one objective figure and four alternative response figures. Two of the alternatives were identical in structure to the objective figure and were rotated to different degrees, while the other two were incorrect figures. Participants were to select the two alternative figures that they thought were rotated versions of the objective figures. Their results found that there was a clear gender difference in the mental rotation task for the

control group, but this difference was not present within the group of security screeners. This suggests that gender differences in mental rotation ability are eliminated in experts, indicating that the difference is likely due to experiential causes rather than biological. This is supported by a study in which Kass et al. (1998) found that specific training can eliminate gender differences in a spatial task. Participants U.S. Naval research employees and were trained to estimate the different angles at which a ship was rotated in a submarine periscope simulator. The results showed that after 30 minutes of practising the task, the gender difference in performance was no longer seen. This further indicates that experience in a spatial task can increase female’s mental rotation performance to that of males. The effects of videogames on spatial abilities has also been the focus of various studies. David (2012) used computer games that required visual-spatial processing to train participants’ spatial ability. Participants were organised into three groups on the basis of their initial level of ability in four spatial tests: mental rotations, spatial orientation, image generation and blocks tests. After playing the videogames for at least six hours, participants’ ability was re-tested. It was found that those with lower initial ability made greater improvements in performance after playing computer games than those with higher initial skills. There was no difference in gains between genders, so the gender gap in spatial ability was not reduced. However, this finding was contradicted in research by Feng, Spence and Pratt (2007), which found that participants with no prior videogame experience made significant gains in spatial attention and mental rotation tasks, after playing an action videogame for ten hours, with females making greater improvements than males, so that the prior gender differences were effectively eliminated. Follow-up testing showed that these improved performance levels were maintained after five months. These studies indicate that spatial ability can be trained through practice in a highly spatial activity such as playing a videogame and show that training in the specific task itself is not necessary to make

improvements in performance. While David’s (2012) study did not show reductions in the gender difference, it did find that those with lower spatial ability make greater gains with training; females often start with a lower baseline spatial performance, and this suggests that they should benefit from training more so than males, as their initial and highest potential scores are further apart (Baenninger & Newcombe, 1989). It would be interesting to investigate whether this also occurs when training involves motor movements and mental rotations, in an activity such as a sport, to gain better insight into the processes involved in the development of spatial skills in males and females. Playing sport is another activity that requires high levels of spatial ability; training motor skills and playing videogames have both been found to be related to higher mental rotation performance (Ozel et al, 2004). Habacha and Dosseville (2014) conducted a study in which athletes and non-athletes completed a mental rotations task similar to that in Kruger and Suchan (2016) study. The results revealed that athletes exhibited better performance than non-athletes, and that athletes who had greater experience performed better than those with less training, regardless of the sport they play. This indicates that practising sports is beneficial to the development of one’s spatial processing skills. Similar results were also found in a study by Ozel et al (2004) where athletes were faster to discriminate and mentally rotate two-dimensional figures in a mental rotation test, which further supports the link between sporting activity and spatial ability. In both studies, it was suggested that sports training involves identifying relationships between different spatial parameters, which is likely to be a skill used in mental rotations (Habacha & Dosseville, 2014; Ozel et al, 2004). Thus, it could be assumed that the regular practise of sports can improve one’s spatial abilities. As several of the presented studies have shown, there is a clear gender difference in mental rotation ability. This difference is not seen in experts, and can be reduced in non-

experts by improving spatial ability through specific training, or experience in spatial activities such as videogames (Kruger & Suchan, 2016; David, 2012; Feng et al, 2007). It has been shown that those with high sporting abilities have greater mental rotation ability, indicating that sports practice can train spatial skills and improve performance in mental rotation tasks (Habacha & Dosseville, 2014; Ozel et al, 2004). Considering that the gender difference in mental rotation tasks does not exist in groups with trained spatial ability, and that sports is shown to improve one’s spatial ability, perhaps the gender difference could be reduced or even eliminated with training in a sport, as it has been demonstrated with videogames (David, 2012; Feng et al, 2007). This research could be beneficial to those studying maths and sciences, as it has been shown that spatial skills are important for these fields and that mental rotation ability is strongly associated with success (Feng et al, 2007).

Proposal It has been shown that males often have superior spatial ability to females, particularly in tasks involving mental rotations (Linn & Petersen, 1985; Kruger & Suchan, 2016; David, 2012). The cause of this is unknown, but research has suggested that it could be due to differences in experience with spatial activities (Chrisler & McCreary, 2010). The gender difference is reduced or eliminated in groups with enhanced mental rotation ability (Kruger & Suchan, 2016). One’s mental rotation performance can be improved through specific training (Kass et al, 1998) and practice in activities that involve high levels of spatial skills such as playing videogames and sports (David, 2012; Feng et al, 2007, Habacha & Dosseville, 2014; Ozel et al, 2004). It has been found that playing videogames not only improves participants’ mental rotation performance, but can also reduce the difference in ability between males and females (Feng et al, 2007). Because sport, like videogames, improves spatial ability, it could be suggested that training in a sport may also reduce the gender difference in mental rotation

performance. However, this is yet to be tested. The proposed research will aim to test if this gender difference in mental rotation tasks will be eliminated after training in soccer skills on a regular basis. There will be two conditions: training and non-training groups. Participants in the training condition will take part in regular soccer training sessions over a 10-month period, while those in the non-training condition will not receive such training. Participants will complete mental rotation tasks as pre-tests and post-tests to assess their ability before and after the 10-month period. It is hypothesised that participants in the training condition will improve in their mental rotation task scores more so than those in the non-training condition. It is also hypothesised that females in the training condition will improve in their mental rotation task scores to the level of their male colleges so that the gender difference is eliminated.

Method Participants. There will be 100 participants, 50 males and 50 females. Participants will be undergraduate students at the University of Otago who have no prior experience in soccer and are not currently participating in any other sporting activities. Their ages will range from 18 to 25 years of age. Participants will volunteer to take part in the experiment. Apparatus. A computer programme will be used to present a mental rotations task and also collect the data from the participants to assess their ability. The stimuli presented will be three-dimensional figures composed of different arrangements of white cubes with black outlines. There will be one objective figure presented above four, in line response figures. Two of the response figures will be the same structure as objective figure, but rotated at different angles (targets). The other two response figures will be different in structure to the objective figure (distractors). The soccer training will be 1½ hour sessions consisting of soccer drills and technical coaching to improve skills and technique, as well as a short soccer

game. Training sessions will be held once every two weeks for the duration of the academic year (10 months, excluding examination periods and breaks). Design. The manipulated variable in this experiment will be the level of soccer training the participant takes part in. There will be two levels: training, and non-training. The design of this study will be between-subjects as participants will only experience one level of training. When assigning experimental (training) and control (non-training) groups, participants will be matched for gender. Procedure. All participants will individually complete a computer based mental rotations task pre-test to assess their initial ability, prior to the training period. There will be thirty trials. In each trial of the task, five figures will be presented; one objective figure and four response figures. Participants will be required to select the two response figures that they think are rotated versions of the objective figure. A different objective figure will be presented in every trial. After completing the pre-test, participants assigned to the nontraining group will continue with their regular lives, while the participants in the training group will begin with their fortnightly training sessions. There will be 16 training sessions over the 10-month training period. Participants should complete all of the training, but will be permitted to not attend a maximum of four sessions. Following the 10-month training period, both the training and non-training groups will complete a mental rotations task post-test, to assess their final ability. The post-test will be the same task as the pre-test. The results from the pre-test and post-test will be collected and summarized by the computer.

Results The measured variable for this study will be mean mental rotation task scores for the pre-test and post-test. Scores will be calculated as the number of correct responses. The computers will collect the individual data from each participant, and average the results

across participants of the same gender for both levels of the manipulated variable, obtaining the male and female means. Paired t-tests and un-paired t-tests will be carried out to test if any differences between pre-test and post-test scores, and between experimental conditions, are statistically significant. The data will be presented in bar graphs. Figure 1 and Figure 2 are examples of the presentation of results that might be found.

Figure 1. Mean mental rotation task scores for the pre-test and post-test, in male and female participants in the training condition.

Figure 2. Mean mental rotation task scores for the pre-test and post-test, in male and female participants in the non-training condition. References Baenninger, M. & Newcombe, N. (1989). The role of experience in spatial test performance: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 20(5), 327-344). Chrisler, J. C., & McCreary, D. R. (2010). Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology: Volume 1. New York: Springer. David, L. T. (2012). Training effects on mental rotation, spatial orientation and spatial visualisation depending on the initial level of spatial abilities. Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences, 33, 328 – 322. Feng, J., Spence, I., & Pratt, J. (2007). Playing an action video game reduces gender differences in spatial cognition. Psychological Science, 18(10), 850-855. Habacha, H., & Dosseville, F. (2014). Effects of gender, imagery ability, and sports practice on the performance of a mental rotation task. The American Journal of Psychology, 127(3), 313-323. Kass, S. J., Ahlers, R. H., & Dugger, M. (1998). Eliminating gender differences through practice in an applied visual spatial task. Human Performance, 11(4), 337-349. Kruger, J. K., & Suchan, B. (2016). You should be the specialist! Weak mental rotation performance in aviation security screeners – Reduced performance level in aviation security with no gender effect. Frontier in Psychology, 7. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00333 Linn, M.C., & Petersen, A.C. (1985). Emergence and characterisation of gender differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56(6), 1479-1498.

Ozel, S., Larue, J., & Molinaro, C. (2004). Relation between sport and spatial imagery: Comparison of three groups of participants. The Journal of Psychology, 138(1), 4963....