[Richard Arends] Learning to Teach(BookFi.org) PDF

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This page intentionally left blank are24323_fm_i-xx.qxd 12/22/10 12:24 PM Page i Confirming Pages Learning to Teach N I N T H E D I T I O N Richard I. Arends Central Connecticut State University are24323_fm_i-xx.qxd 12/22/10 12:24 PM Page ii Confirming Pages LEARNING TO TEACH, NINTH EDITION Publish...

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Learning to Teach N I N T H

E D I T I O N

Richard I. Arends Central Connecticut State University

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LEARNING TO TEACH, NINTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2007, and 2004. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 RJE/RJE 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 978-0-07-802432-0 MHID 0-07-802432-3 Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Michael Ryan Vice President EDP/Central Publishing Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Editorial Director: Beth Mejia Senior Sponsoring Editor: Allison McNamara Executive Marketing Manager: Pamela S. Cooper Editorial Coordinator: Marley Magaziner Project Manager: Erin Melloy Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri Cover Image: © Blend Images/Alamy RF Buyer: Susan K. Culbertson Media Project Manager: Sridevi Palani Compositor: Laserwords Private Limited Typeface: 9.5/12 Palatino Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page and on pages 574–575 are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Arends, Richard Learning to teach/Richard I. Arends. — 9th ed. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-07-802432-0 (alk. paper) 1. Teaching—Textbooks. 2. Effective teaching—Textbooks. I. Title. LB1025.3.A74 2012 371.102—dc22 2010048872

www.mhhe.com

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About the Author Richard I. Arends is Professor of Educational Leadership and Dean Emeritus at Central Connecticut State University, where he served as Dean of the School of Education and Interim Provost of Academic Affairs from 1991 to 2004. Before going to Connecticut, he was on the faculty and chaired the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Maryland, College Park. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Oregon, where he was on the faculty from 1975 to 1983. A former elementary, middle school, and high school teacher, his special interests are teaching, teacher education, organization development, and school improvement. Professor Arends has authored or contributed to over a dozen books on education, including the Second Handbook of Organization Development in Schools, Systems Strategies in Education, Exploring Teaching, Teaching for Student Learning, and Learning to Teach. The latter is now in its ninth edition and has been translated into several foreign languages. He has worked widely with schools and universities throughout North America, in Jamaica, and in the Pacific Rim, including Australia, Samoa, Palau, and Saipan. The recipient of numerous awards, Professor Arends was selected in 1989 as the outstanding teacher educator in Maryland and in 1990 received the Judith Ruskin Award for outstanding research in education. From 1995 to 1997, Professor Arends held the William Allen (Boeing) Endowed Chair in the School of Education at Seattle University. Currently, he is retired in Seattle, Washington, where he pursues his favorite projects and continues to write.

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Brief Contents Part 1

Teaching and Learning in Today’s Classrooms

1

The Scientific Basis for the Art of Teaching 2 Chapter 2 Student Learning in Diverse Classrooms 40 Chapter 1

Part 2

The Leadership Aspects of Teaching

91

Teacher Planning 92 Chapter 4 Learning Communities and Student Motivation 136 Chapter 5 Classroom Management 176 Chapter 6 Assessment and Evaluation 212 Chapter 3

Part 3

Overview of Teacher-Centered Transmission Models of Teaching

259

Presenting and Explaining 262 Chapter 8 Direct Instruction 294 Chapter 9 Concept and Inquiry-Based Teaching 322 Chapter 7

Part 4

Overview of Student-Centered Constructivist Models of Teaching

355

Cooperative Learning 358 Problem-Based Learning 394 Chapter 12 Classroom Discussion 428 Chapter 13 Connecting the Models and Differentiating Instruction 462 Chapter 10 Chapter 11

Part 5

The Organizational Aspects of Teaching Chapter 14

491

School Leadership and Collaboration 492

Resource Handbook Glossary References Credits Name Index Subject Index

523 545 555 574 576 580 v

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Contents Preface xiii Part 1

Teaching and Learning in Today’s Classrooms 1 Chapter 1

Chapter 2

The Scientific Basis for the Art of Teaching 2

Student Learning in Diverse Classrooms 40

Historical Perspective on Teaching 5 Role Expectations in Earlier Times 5 Twentieth-Century Role Expectations 6 Teaching Challenges for the Twenty-First Century 7

A Perspective on Effective Teaching for the Twenty-First Century 19 The Ultimate Goal of Teaching 20 A View of the Effective Teacher 20 Personal Qualities for Developing Authentic Relationships 21 Democratic and Socially Just Classrooms 21 Knowledge Base to Guide the Art of Practice 22 Repertoire of Effective Practice 25 Reflection and Problem Solving 29

Learning to Teach 30 Models of Teacher Development 30 Early Influences on Teaching 32

Reflections from the Classroom 35 Summary 36 Interactive and Applied Learning 38 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 38

vi

Perspective and Overview 42 Theoretical and Empirical Support 45 Inequities 46 Differential Treatment of Students 47 Learning Abilities, Styles, and Preferences 49

Exceptionalities 54 Students with Disabilities 54 Gifted and Talented Students 60

Culture, Ethnicity, and Race 63 Perspectives on Culture, Ethnicity, and Race 63 Working with Students in Racially and Culturally Diverse Classrooms 66

Religious Diversity 72 Language Diversity 73 Differences in Dialects 73 Second-Language Acquisition 74 Working with Language Diversity in the Classroom 74

Gender Differences 75 Nature of Gender Differences 76 Origins of Gender Differences 76 Stereotyping and Differential Treatment 78

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Working with Gender Differences in the Classroom 79 Sexual Orientation 80

Social Class Differences 80 Characteristics and Performance of Low-SES Students 81 Differential Treatment of Low-SES Students 82 Working with Low-SES Students in the Classroom 83

vii

Some Final Thoughts and Schoolwide Issues 83 Reflections from the Classroom 85 Summary 86 Interactive and Applied Learning 88 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 89

Part 2

The Leadership Aspects of Teaching Chapter 3

Teacher Planning 92 Perspective on Planning 94 Planning—The Traditional View 95 Planning—An Alternative Perspective 95 Mental Planning 96

Theoretical and Empirical Support 97 Planning Influences What Students Learn 97 Planning and the Beginning Teacher 98

Planning Domains 102 Planning and the Instructional Cycle 102 The Time Spans of Planning 103

The Specifics of Planning 104 Planning What to Teach 104 Tools and Strategies for Curriculum Enactment 108 Instructional Objectives 111 Taxonomies for Selecting Instructional Objectives 114 Lesson Plans and Unit Plans 118 Diversity and Differentation 124

Planning for Time and Space 125 Time Is of the Essence 126 Space, a Critical Element 127 Planning with Colleagues 128

A Final Thought about Planning 128

91

Reflections from the Classroom 131 Summary 131 Interactive and Applied Learning 133 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 134

Chapter 4

Learning Communities and Student Motivation 136 Perspective on Classrooms as Learning Communities 140 Fusion of the Individual and the Group 141

Theoretical and Empirical Support 142 Human Motivation 142 Features of Learning Communities 149 Research on Motivation and Learning Communities 155

Strategies for Motivating Students and Building Productive Learning Communities 160 Believe in Students’ Capabilities and Attend to Alterable Factors 160 Avoid Overemphasizing Extrinsic Motivation 160 Create Learning Situations with Positive Feeling Tones 161

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viii

Contents

Build on Students’ Interests and Intrinsic Values 162 Structure Learning to Accomplish Flow 163 Use Knowledge of Results and Don’t Excuse Failure 163 Attend to Student Needs, Including the Need for Self-Determination 164 Attend to the Nature of Learning Goals and Difficulty of Instructional Tasks 165 Diversity and Differentiation: Using Multidimensional Tasks 166 Facilitate Group Development and Cohesion 167

Some Final Thoughts 170 Reflections from the Classroom 172 Summary 173 Interactive and Applied Learning 174 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 175

Chapter 6

Assessment and Evaluation 212 Perspective on Assessment and Evaluation 215 Importance of Assessment and Evaluation 215 Key Assessment and Evaluation Concepts 217

Theoretical and Empirical Support 219 Effects of Assessments and Grades on Student Motivation and Learning 220 Teacher Bias in Assessment and Grading 224

Standardized Tests 224 Nature of Standardized Tests 225 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 227 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Approaches 228 The Teacher’s Role in Standardized Testing 228

A Teacher’s Classroom Assessment Program 230 Chapter 5

Classroom Management 176 Perspective on Classroom Management 178 Theoretical and Empirical Support 180 Behavioral Theory 180 Classroom Ecology and Group Processes 180 Effective Teaching Research 183 Child-Centered Traditions 184

Preparing for Effective Classroom Management 185 Preventative Classroom Management 185 Managing Inappropriate and Disruptive Behavior 194

Classroom Management Programs 200 Traditional Programs Based on Behavioral Theory 201 Programs That Aim toward Self-Management and Community 203 The Caring Classroom 205

A Final Thought and Look to the Future 207 Reflections from the Classroom 208 Summary 209 Interactive and Applied Learning 210 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 211

Primary Purposes of Assessment 230 Assessment for Learning 230 Assessment as Learning 233 Assessment of Learning 234

Assessing Student Learning Using Traditional Measures 235 General Principles 235 Test Construction 236 Giving the Traditional Test 241

Assessing Student Learning Using Alternative Measures 243 Performance Assessment 243 Authentic Assessment 245 Designing and Scoring Performance and Authentic Assessments 245 Student Portfolios 249 Assessing Group Effort and Individually Contracted Work 249 Making Decisions about Assessments 250

Evaluation and Grading 250 A Final Thought 254 Reflections from the Classroom 254 Summary 256 Interactive and Applied Learning 258 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 258

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Part 3

Overview of Teacher-Centered Transmission Models of Teaching 259 Chapter 7

Presenting and Explaining 262 Overview of Presentation Teaching 264 Theoretical and Empirical Support 265 Structure and Organization of Knowledge 265 Meaningful Verbal Learning 266 Cognitive Psychology and Information Processing 267 Empirical Support 271

Planning and Conducting Presentation Lessons 275 Planning for Presentations 275 Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Presentations for Differing Student Abilities 279 Conducting Presentation Lessons 280

Managing the Learning Environment 288 Assessment and Evaluation 289 Reflections from the Classroom 290 Summary 290 Interactive and Applied Learning 292 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 292

Chapter 8

Direct Instruction 294 Overview of Direct Instruction 297 Theoretical and Empirical Support 297 Behavioral Theory 297 Social Cognitive Theory 298 Teacher Effectiveness Research 299

Planning and Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons 299 Planning for Direct Instruction 301 Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons 304 Diversity and Differentiation: Varying Direct Instruction Lessons to Meet Diverse Needs 312

A Final Thought: Considering the Use of Direct Instruction 315 Reflections from the Classroom 316 Summary 318 Interactive and Applied Learning 319 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 319

Chapter 9

Concept and Inquiry-Based Teaching 322 Overview of Teaching Students How to Think 324 Theoretical Perspectives about Teaching Thinking 324 Universality of Thinking 324 Types of Thinking 325

Concept Teaching 326 Nature of Concepts 321 Human Development and Concept Learning 330 Planning for Concept Teaching 331 Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Plans to Meet Diverse Needs 336 Conducting Concept Lessons 337

Inquiry-Based Teaching 341 Planning for Inquiry-Based Lessons 342 Conducting Inquiry-Based Lessons 343

Making Thinking Visible 346 Developing Classrooms with Cultures of Thinking 346 Making Thinking More Visible 347 Using Thinking Routines 347

Developing Learning Environments That Promote Thinking 348 Assessing Thinking Processes and Skills 349 Reflections from the Classroom 350 Summary 352

Managing the Learning Environment 313

Interactive and Applied Learning 353

Assessment and Evaluation 314

Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 354

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x Contents

Part 4

Overview of Student-Centered Constructivist Models of Teaching 355 Chapter 10

Cooperative Learning 358 Overview of Cooperative Learning 360 Theoretical and Empirical Support 362 Concept of the Democratic Classroom 362 Intergroup Relations 363 Experiential Learning 363 The Effects of Cooperative Learning 364

Planning and Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons 368 Planning for Cooperative Learning 368 Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons 375 Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Cooperative Learning Lessons for Diverse Learners 379

Managing the Learning Environment 380 Helping with Transitions 381 Teaching Cooperation 382

Assessment and Evaluation 385 Testing Academic Learning 386 Assessing Cooperation 387 Grading Cooperative Learning 388 Recognizing Cooperative Effort 388

Cooperative Learning: A Final Thought 388 Reflections from the Classroom 389 Summary 390 Interactive and Applied Learning 391 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 392 Chapter 11

Problem-Based Learning 394 Overview of Problem-Based Learning 396 Special Features of Problem-Based Learning 397

Theoretical and Empirical Support 399 Dewey and the Problem-Oriented Classroom 400 Piaget, Vygotsky, and Constructivism 400 Bruner and Discovery Learning 401 Is PBL Effective? 402

Planning and Conducting Problem-Based Lessons 403 Planning for PBL Lessons 403 Conducting PBL Lessons 410 Using Learning Centers for Problem-Based Learning 414 Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Problem-Based Lessons for Diverse Students

416

Managing the Learning Environment 416 Dealing with Multitask Situations 417 Adjusting to Differing Finishing Rates 417 Monitoring and Managing Student Work 417 Managing Materials and Equipment 418 Regulating Movement and Behavior outside the Classroom 418

Assessment and Evaluation 419 Assessing Understanding 419 Using Checklists and Rating Scales 419 Assessing Adult Roles and Situations 421 Assessing Learning Potential 421 Assessing Group Effort 422

Problem-Based Learning: A Final Thought 422 Reflections from the Classroom 423 Summary 424 Interactive and Applied Learning 425 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 426

Chapter 12

Classroom Discussion 428 Overview of Classroom Discussion 430 Theoretical and Empirical Support 431 Discourse and Cognition 432 Classroom Discourse Patterns 433 Teacher Questioning 434 Wait-Time 435

Planning and Conducting Discussion Lessons 438 Planning for Discussion 438 Conducting Discussions 442

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Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Discussions for Diverse Learners 448

Managing the Learning Environment 450 Slow the Pace and Broaden Participation 450 Increase Interpersonal Regard and Understanding 451 Use Tools That Highlight Discourse and Thinking Skills 453

Assessment and Evaluation 454 Follow-up Discussions 454 Grading Classroom Discussions 455

Classroom Discourse Patterns: A Final Thought 456 Reflections from the Classroom 457 Summary 458 Interactive and Applied Learning 460 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 460

Chapter 13

xi

Connecting and Using Multiple Models 465 Repertoire and Choice 465 Connecting and Using Multiple Models: Two Classroom Scenarios 467

Differentiating Instruction 474 Rationale for Differentiation 474 The Differentiated Classroom 475 Essential Elements of Differentiation 476 Instructional Strategies for Differentiating Instruction 477 Use of Flexible Grouping in the Differentiated Classroom 481

Management and Assessment in the Differentiated Classroom 482 Classroom Management 483 Assessing and Evaluating Student Work 484

Reflections from the Classroom 485 Summary 487 Interactive and Applied Learning 488 Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 488

Connecting the Models and Differentiating Instruction 462 Introduction and Rationale 464

Part 5

The Organizational Aspects of Teaching 491 Chapter 14

School Leadership and Collaboration 492 Perspective on Schools as Workplaces 495 Schools Are Human Systems 495 Schools Have Histories and Cultures 496 Schools Exist in Context 496 Schools Have Features in Common with Other Organizations 497 Schools Have Unique Features 497 Norms, Roles, and the Culture of Teaching 499

Theoretical and Empirical Support 501 Nature of Teachers’Work 502

Research on School Effectivene...