Satellite Geodesy PDF

Preview

Summary

Günter Seeber Satellite Geodesy 2nd completely revised and extended edition ≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York 2003 Author Günter Seeber, Univ. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Institut für Erdmessung Universität Hannover Schneiderberg 50 30167 Hannover Germany 1st edition 1993 This book contains 281 figures and...

Description

Accelerat ing t he world's research.

Satellite Geodesy Daiane Vaz

Related papers

Download a PDF Pack of t he best relat ed papers 

Analysis Cent er Report : Jet Propulsion Laborat ory Dale Boggs Impact of Group Delay Variat ions on Wide- and Narrowlane Linear Combinat ions Tobias Kerst en Sat ellit e Laser Ranging in t he 1990s: Report of t he 1994 Belmont Workshop John Degnan

Günter Seeber

Satellite Geodesy 2nd completely revised and extended edition

≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York 2003

Author Günter Seeber, Univ. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Institut für Erdmessung Universität Hannover Schneiderberg 50 30167 Hannover Germany 1st edition 1993 This book contains 281 figures and 64 tables.

앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI to ensure permanence 앪 and durability. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Seeber, Günter, 1941⫺ [Satellitengeodäsie. English] Satellite geodesy : foundations, methods, and applications / Günter Seeber. ⫺ 2nd completely rev. and extended ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 3-11-017549-5 (alk. paper) 1. Satellite geodesy. I. Title. QB343 .S4313 2003 526⬘.1⫺dc21 2003053126

ISBN 3-11-017549-5 Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at ⬍http://dnb.ddb.de⬎. 쑔 Copyright 2003 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, 10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in Germany Cover design: Rudolf Hübler, Berlin Typeset using the authors TEX files: I. Zimmermann, Freiburg Printing and binding: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. Kg, Göttingen

To the memory of my grandson Johannes

Preface

Methods of satellite geodesy are increasingly used in geodesy, surveying engineering, and related disciplines. In particular, the modern development of precise and operational satellite based positioning and navigation techniques have entered all fields of geosciences and engineering. A growing demand is also evident for fine-structured gravity field models from new and forthcoming satellite missions and for the monitoring of Earth’s rotation in space. For many years I have had the feeling that there is a definite need for a systematic textbook covering the whole subject, including both its foundations and its applications. It is my intention that this book should, at least in part, help to fulfill this requirement. The material presented here is partly based on courses taught at the University of Hannover since 1973 and on guest lectures given abroad. It is my hope that this material can be used at other universities for similar courses. This book is intended to serve as a text for advanced undergraduates and for graduates, mainly in geodesy, surveying engineering, photogrammetry, cartography and geomatics. It is also intended as a source of information for professionals who have an interest in the methods and results of satellite geodesy and who need to acquaint themselves with new developments. In addition, this book is aimed at students, teachers, professionals and scientists from related fields of engineering and geosciences, such as terrestrial and space navigation, hydrography, civil engineering, traffic control, GIS technology, geography, geology, geophysics and oceanography. In line with this objective, the character of the book falls somewhere between that of a textbook and that of a handbook. The background required is an undergraduate level of mathematics and elementary mathematical statistics. Because of rapid and continuous developments in this field, it has been necessary to be selective, and to give greater weight to some topics than to others. Particular importance has been attached to the fundamentals and to the applications, especially to the use of artificial satellites for the determination of precise positions. A comprehensive list of references has been added for further reading to facilitate deeper and advanced studies. The first edition of this book was published in 1993 as an English translation and update of the book “Satellitengeodäsie”, that was printed in the German language in 1989. The present edition has been completely revised and significantly extended. The fundamental structure of the first edition has been maintained to facilitate continuity of teaching; however, outdated material has been removed and new material has been included. All chapters have been updated and some have been re-written. The overall status is autumn 2002 but some of the most recent technological developments to March 2003 have been included. Extensions and updates mainly pertain to reference coordinate systems and reference frames [2.2], signal propagation [2.3], directions with CCD technology [5.2], the Global Positioning System (GPS) and GNSS [7], satellite laser ranging [8], satellite

viii

Preface

altimetry [9], gravity field missions [10] and applications [12]. In particular, the chapter on GPS and GNSS [7] has been almost completely re-written and now covers about 200 pages. Together with chapters [2], [3], and [12], it forms a comprehensive GPS manual on its own. New technological developments of the space and user segment are included, as is the current state of data analysis and error budget. Differential GPS and permanent reference networks are now treated in a comprehensive section of their own [7.5]. GLONASS and the forthcoming GALILEO are included in a new section on GNSS [7.7]. Gravity field missions like CHAMP, GRACE and GOCE, because of their increasing importance, are dealt with in a new chapter [10]. VLBI, together with the new inclusion of interferometric SAR, form another new chapter [11]. Coverage of historical techniques like photographic camera observations [5] and Transit Doppler [6] has been considerably reduced. The basic principles, however, are still included because of their historical importance and because they are shared by new technologies like CCD cameras [5.2] and DORIS [6.7]. The geodetic history of Transit Doppler techniques, in addition, is an excellent source for understanding the evolution and basic concepts of the GPS. The chapter on applications, now renumbered [12], has been updated to include modern developments and a new section on the combination of geodetic space techniques [12.5]. International services of interest to satellite geodesy have been included, namely the IGS [7.8.1], the ILRS [8.5.1], the IVS [11.1.3], and the IERS [12.4]. The bibliography has been updated and expanded considerably by adding an increased number of English language references. The total number of references is now reaching 760, about half of which are new in this edition. Many of the examples within this book are based on field projects and research work carried out in collaboration with my graduate students, doctorate candidates and scientific colleagues at the University of Hannover over more than 20 years. I would like to thank all these individuals for their long standing cooperation and the many fruitful discussions I have had with them. In addition, the help of the staff at the Institut für Erdmessung is gratefully acknowledged. Most figures have been redrawn by cand. geod. Anke Daubner and Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Paech. My sincere thanks for checking and correcting the English language go to Dr. Graeme Eagles of the Alfred Wegener Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven. I should also like to thank the many colleagues from all over the world who helped to improve the book through their comments on the first edition, and the individuals and organizations who provided illustrations. Finally my gratitude goes to my wife Gisela for her never ending support and understanding. The publisher remained excellently cooperative throughout the preparation of this book. My cordial thanks go to Dr. Manfred Karbe, Dr. Irene Zimmermann, and the staff at Walter de Gruyter. Hannover, May 2003

Günter Seeber

Contents

Preface

vii

Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Subject of Satellite Geodesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Classification and Basic Concepts of Satellite Geodesy 1.3 Historical Development of Satellite Geodesy . . . . . . 1.4 Applications of Satellite Geodesy . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Structure and Objective of the Book . . . . . . . . . .

xvii

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

2 Fundamentals 2.1 Reference Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Cartesian Coordinate Systems and Coordinate Transformations 2.1.2 Reference Coordinate Systems and Frames in Satellite Geodesy 2.1.2.1 Conventional Inertial Systems and Frames . . . . . 2.1.2.2 Conventional Terrestrial Systems and Frames . . . . 2.1.2.3 Relationship between CIS and CTS . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Reference Coordinate Systems in the Gravity Field of Earth . 2.1.4 Ellipsoidal Reference Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.5 Ellipsoid, Geoid and Geodetic Datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.6 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.7 Three-dimensional Eccentricity Computation . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Basic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Sidereal Time and Universal Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Atomic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Ephemeris Time, Dynamical Time, Terrestrial Time . . . . . . 2.2.5 Clocks and Frequency Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Signal Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Some Fundamentals of Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1.1 Basic Relations and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1.2 Dispersion, Phase Velocity and Group Velocity . . . 2.3.1.3 Frequency Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Structure and Subdivision of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Signal Propagation through the Ionosphere and the Troposphere 2.3.3.1 Ionospheric Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.2 Tropospheric Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 3 5 7 9 10 10 10 12 13 15 17 21 23 25 28 30 31 31 32 35 37 39 42 43 43 45 46 48 52 54 56

x

Contents

3 Satellite Orbital Motion 3.1 Fundamentals of Celestial Mechanics, Two-Body Problem . . . . . . 3.1.1 Keplerian Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Newtonian Mechanics, Two-Body Problem . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2.1 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2.2 Elementary Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2.3 Vectorial Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Orbit Geometry and Orbital Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Perturbed Satellite Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Representation of the Perturbed Orbital Motion . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.1 Osculating and Mean Orbital Elements . . . . . . . 3.2.1.2 Lagrange’s Perturbation Equations . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.3 Gaussian Form of Perturbation Equation . . . . . . 3.2.2 Disturbed Motion due to Earth’s Anomalous Gravity Field . . 3.2.2.1 Perturbation Equation and Geopotential . . . . . . 3.2.2.2 Perturbations of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.3 Perturbations Caused by the Zonal Coefficients Jn . 3.2.3 Other Perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3.1 Perturbing Forces Caused by the Sun and Moon . . 3.2.3.2 Solid Earth Tides and Ocean Tides . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3.3 Atmospheric Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3.4 Direct and Indirect Solar Radiation Pressure . . . . 3.2.3.5 Further Perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3.6 Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 Implications of Perturbations on Selected Satellite Orbits . . . 3.3 Orbit Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Integration of the Undisturbed Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Integration of the Perturbed Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.1 Analytical Methods of Orbit Integration . . . . . . 3.3.2.2 Numerical Methods of Orbit Integration . . . . . . 3.3.2.3 Precise Orbit Determination with Spaceborne GPS . 3.3.3 Orbit Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.1 Ephemeris Representation for Navigation Satellites 3.3.3.2 Polynomial Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.3 Simplified Short Arc Representation . . . . . . . . 3.4 Satellite Orbits and Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Basic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Orbits and Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Sun-synchronous, Geostationary, and Transfer Orbits . . . . .

62 62 63 66 66 69 74 77 82 84 84 85 87 88 89 94 96 98 98 101 102 104 105 107 108 109 110 114 114 116 119 120 121 122 124 126 126 128 131

xi

Contents

4 Basic Observation Concepts and Satellites Used in Geodesy 4.1 Satellite Geodesy as a Parameter Estimation Problem . . . . . 4.2 Observables and Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Determination of Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Determination of Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Determination of Range Differences (Doppler method) 4.2.4 Satellite Altimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5 Determination of Ranges and Range-Rates (Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.6 Interferometric Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.7 Further Observation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Satellites Used in Geodesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Basic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Some Selected Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Satellite Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.1 Drag Free Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2 Attitude Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.3 Navigation Payload, PRARE . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Planned Satellites and Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Some Early Observation Techniques (Classical Methods) . . . 4.4.1 Electronic Ranging SECOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Other Early Observation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 5 Optical Methods for the Determination of Directions 5.1 Photographic Determination of Directions . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Satellites used for Camera Observations . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Satellite Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Observation and Plate Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Spatial Triangulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Directions with CCD Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Image Coordinates from CCD Observations . . . . . 5.2.2 Star Catalogs, Star Identification and Plate Reduction 5.2.3 Applications, Results and Prospects . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Directions from Space Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Star Tracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Astrometric Satellites, HIPPARCOS . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Planned Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

135 135 139 139 141 143 144

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

144 145 147 147 147 149 152 152 153 154 156 158 159 160

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

161 161 162 163 164 169 170 172 172 174 176 176 177 177 178

6 Doppler Techniques 181 6.1 Doppler Effect and Basic Positioning Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 6.2 One Successful Example: The Navy Navigation Satellite System . . 186 6.2.1 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 6.2.2 Broadcast and Precise Ephemerides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

xii

Contents

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

Doppler Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Examples of Doppler Survey Sets . . . . Error Budget and Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Satellite Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Ionospheric and Tropospheric Refraction 6.4.3 Receiver System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4 Earth Rotation and Relativistic Effects . . 6.4.5 Motion of the Receiver Antenna . . . . . Observation Strategies and Adjustment Models . 6.5.1 Extended Observation Equation . . . . . 6.5.2 Single Station Positioning . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Multi-Station Positioning . . . . . . . . . Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 Applications for Geodetic Control . . . . 6.6.2 Further Applications . . . . . . . . . . . DORIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 The Global Positioning System (GPS) 7.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.3 Control Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.4 Observation Principle and Signal Structure . . . . . . 7.1.5 Orbit Determination and Orbit Representation . . . . . 7.1.5.1 Determination of the Broadcast Ephemerides 7.1.5.2 Orbit Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.5.3 Computation of Satellite Time and Satellite Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.5.4 Structure of the GPS Navigation Data . . . . 7.1.6 Intentional Limitation of the System Accuracy . . . . 7.1.7 System Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 GPS Receivers (User Segment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Receiver Concepts and Main Receiver Components . . 7.2.2 Code Dependent Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Codeless and Semicodeless Signal Processing . . . . . 7.2.4 Examples of GPS receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4.1 Classical Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4.2 Examples of Currently Available Geodetic Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4.3 Navigation and Handheld Receivers . . . . 7.2.5 Future Developments and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 GPS Observables and Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

190 190 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 199 201 202 203 204 205 207

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

211 211 211 213 217 218 222 222 223

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

225 227 229 230 234 234 239 240 243 243

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

245 248 250 252

Contents

7....