Seminar Assignments Ancient History Hatshepsut PDF

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Hatshepsut

Geography, topography and resources of Egypt and its neighbours GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY  Dominated geographically by the Nile River (iteru): o 7000km long o Formed 3 rivers - the White Nile, the Blue Nile and the Atbara o Flows north towards the Mediterranean sea o Broken up in 6 places by impenetrable rocky outcrops and rapids known as cataracts o Consists of 3 sections: narrow stretch between Aswan and Memphis, Delta and Bahr Yussaf branch (forms large lake in the desert called the Faiym)  Herodotus - Egypt is "the gift" of the Nile as without the Nile River the ancient Egyptians could not have survived.  Impact of the Nile: o Deposited a rich layer of black alluvial soil over its banks during the annual inundation, which enabled agriculture to flourish o Provided essential natural resources such as mud for brick building o Chief means of transportation and communication in Egypt o Influenced development of particular religious beliefs and social attitudes o Led to the growth of a large administrative bureaucracy responsible for controlling land and water use o Determined the season of the year and regulated the activities of the people  Egypt called “The Two Lands” due to the differences between Upper and Lower Egypt. RESOURCES  Generally self-sufficient in most natural resources.  Resources that could not be obtained locally were obtained through trade or tribute.  Resources of Egypt: crops, vegetables, fruit, sweeteners and oils (e.g. grapes, barley, honey and linseed oil), domesticated animals, fowl and fish, building materials (lime and sandstone), reeds (papyrus), semi-precious stones, metals and salts.  Resources of neighbours: Lebanon: cedar, Nubia: gold, ivory & copper, Sinai: turquoise & malachite, Palestine: silver. Historical overview of the early 18th Dynasty 

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Characterised by: o Military conquest o Expansion and consolidation of Egyptian territory in Nubia and the Near East o Unprecedented prosperity and cultural achievement o Increased international prestige See NK Egypt notes for more info.

Overview of the social, political, military and economic structures of the early NK Period

SOCIAL STRUCTURES  Highly stratified social structure.  Women had higher status than in most other ancient societies bout rarely participated in public life.  Main responsibilities were within the home, but occasionally worked as agricultural labourers or in temples as priestesses, musicians etc. POLITICAL STRUCTURES  After expulsion of the Hyksos improvements to Egypt's political structures were made. Included: o Re-establishment of a strong central government o Gradual increase in the size of government bureaucracies o Creation of new administrative positions  Head of government was pharaoh. Chief responsibilities were to: o Uphold Ma'at by maintaining law and order, preside over legal cases and decide punishments o Act as intermediary between the people and the gods by conducting daily temple rituals and making offerings o Maintain security as head of the armed forces o Ensure efficient functioning of the civil service and judiciary o Maintain state treasuries and trade to ensure prosperity o Provide continuity by ensuring a regular inundation and food harvests  Most of the king's authority was delegated to a network of officials organised into 4 divisions of administrative responsibility: civil, religious and military administration and the royal domain. MILITARY STRUCTURES  At the beginning of the 18th dynasty, Egypt developed a permanent army that used horse drawn chariots, bows and arrows which was introduced by the Hyksos’ invasion.  Army was needed for constant campaigning and to regularly pacify foreign groups (e.g. Syria/Palestine).  Army headed by “great army general”.  Had continuous levying and training, used a hierarchical system and had standing garrisons abroad.  The king was a war leader, and only went on campaigns to embellish temples and reinforce power and warrior pharaoh image. ECONOMIC STRUCTURES  Economy dependent on agricultural production.  During the early NK there was a period of unprecedented growth. All aspects of the economy were centrally administered and resources were strictly controlled.  Sources of wealth: o Tax collection o Tribute paid annually by subject states as acknowledgement of submission (in form of a proportion of natural resources e.g. metals or crops) o Gifts from neighbouring kings o Dowries paid following diplomatic marriages o Booty (goods captured after a successful campaign)

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o Trade - goods exchanged with Nubia, Syria-Palestine, and Punt etc. Usually luxury items (e.g. spices) And essential raw materials not available in Egypt (e.g. cedar) Egyptian women were allowed to own property, hold official positions and to inherit money from their parents or late husbands.

Relationship of the king to Amun   

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The king was closely associated with Amun. Under the Theban rulers of the 18th Dynasty Amun became the chief god in Egypt and his temple at Karnak became the centre of the national cult. A strong relationship with Amun had important political implications for the kings. It could be used to: o Reinforce or legitimise their position o Justify political decisions made o Influence the pattern of succession ensure continuing support for their reign Most kings chose to demonstrate their close relationship with Aum in the following ways: o By claiming to be his son or daughter (Divine Birth) o By claiming to have been personally selected by him to rule Egypt o By attributing all policy decisions and achievements to him

Overview of religious beliefs and practices of the early NK period   

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Ancient Egypt was a polytheistic society and hosted approximately 700 gods and goddesses, including Amun, Hathor, Osiris and Anubis. Pharaoh has the status of a god (Divine Kingship), and so received both a cult during their life and after their death. Amun was promoted from local god of Thebes to the status of state god through his syncretism with the sun-god Re. The Egyptians believed that Amun: o Was associated with the vulture-goddess Mut and the moon-god Khonshu in a divine triad. o Had created the world on a mound of earth in Thebes that had emerged from the waters of chaos at the beginning of time. o Physically resided in the Temple of Amun at Karnak embodied in a statue enclosed in the sanctuary. 3 important rituals were associated with Amun: the Daily Service (3 times a day, statue of the god purified, fed, washed and clothed by the king or high priest), the Opet Festival and the Valley Festival. Ordinary Egyptians did not participate in temple worship or practise the official religion of the state. Evidence from Deir el-Medina suggests they: o Worshipped household and traditional gods such as Thoth and Hathor in village temples and household shrines. o Decorated their tombs with scenes of Osiris and Isis. o Wore amulets and painted their houses with images of Taweret, goddess of childbirth and Bes, goddess of fertility. Continued to believe in life after death and the need to preserve and protect the body fo the next world. New ideas included: o The dominance of the cult of Osiris in burial rites

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o The notion of individual judgement before Osiris and a panel of 42 gods and the weighing of the heart against the Feather of Truth o The illustration of the judgement process and the Negative Confession in funerary texts such as the Book of the Dead o The merging of the king's afterlife with Re's nightly journey through the underworld (the Amduat) o The concept of the afterlife as a perfect environment of leisure and prosperity called the Field of Reeds Egyptians believed that the body was the link to a spiritual existence in the afterlife, and so practiced mummification in order to preserve their body for the afterlife. New practices included: o Improved methods of embalming, resulting in better preservation (e.g. removal of the brain) o Use of amulets associated with rebirth e.g. scarab o Use of mummification coffins o Use of canopic jars with stoppers in the shape of a human head o Use of highly decorated canopic chests o Representation of the funeral procession in all tombs o Performance of the Opening of the Mouth ceremony on the mummy of the deceased instead of the ka statue o Provision of stone and pottery ushabtis, Osiris figurines, corn mummies and magical bricks in tomb equipment Tomb construction and decoration reflected many of these new ideas and practices o Tomb scenes focusing on rebirth o Location of the royal burials in the Theban Necropolis (Valley of the Kings) o Burial in rock-cut tombs o Incorporation of Osiris symbolism in architecture (e.g. The Hall of Hindering)

Family background   

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3rd pharaoh of the Thutmosid Dynasty, which began with Thutmose I. Eldest daughter of Thutmose I and his Great Royal Wife, Queen Ahmose. Ahmose's origins are the subject of historical debate. Suggested that she was not of royal blood since she lacked the title 'King's Daughter'. She may have been the sister of Thutmose I (Callender) or a "princess of the Ahmosid family as suggested by her name" (Bradley). Had 4 known siblings: 3 brothers and a sister. Thutmose II was a younger half-brother by a minor queen, Mutnofret, who may also have been the mother of Amenmose and Wadjmose (who died during Thutmose I's reign). Her sister Neferubity is known from scenes in Hatshepsut's Deir el-Bahri temple, where she is shown with Thutmose I and Ahmose. As the king’s eldest daughter, she would have inherited the position of God’s wife of Amun and "been aware of her exalted position from an early age" (Bradley).

Marriage to Thutmose II 

During her father's reign, Hatshepsut married her half-brother, Thutmose II.

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He was not heir to the throne because his mother was not the ‘Kings Great Wife’, thus marrying Hatshepsut (who had royal lineage) gave his succession (when Thutmose I died in c. 1518 BC) legitimacy. Had a daughter called Neferure. Thutmose II had other children by minor wives: a daughter (Merytnub) and a son (Thutmose III), whose mother was a concubine called Isis. In the absence of a legitimate male heir, Thutmose III was named as Thutmose II's successor. Hatshepsut was conventional queen consort during Thutmose II's reign. A stela from this time shows her with her husband and mother standing in front of a statue of Amun-Re. Her subordinate position "in approved wifely fashion" on this stela reveals her status to be no more than a traditional Great Royal Wife - Tyldesley. A relief of Hatshepsut as the consort of Thutmose II from the Temple of Amun shows her wearing the vulture cap, the traditional headdress of the Great Royal Wife.

Claim to the throne and succession 

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Hurley - "The legitimacy of Hatshepsut's accession as pharaoh has long been a subject of debate among historians. It continues to be perhaps the most controversial aspect of her reign". There were 3 stages to Hatshepsut's elevation to the kingship: o Queen consort for Thutmose II o Regent for Thutmose III o King of Upper and Lower Egypt

QUEEN CONSORT FOR THUTMOSE II  Explained in 'Marriage to Thutmose II'.  Evidence suggests she had no ambitions for the throne and exercised no power beyond that of chief royal spouse: o Her titles were standard for her position i.e. 'King's Daughter', 'King's Sister', 'King's Great Wife'. o The tomb she commenced to build south of Deir el-Bahri was typical of those constructed for queens. o The stela described above. REGENT FOR THUTMOSE III  Because Thutmose III was a minor and too young to rule when he came to the throne, Hatshepsut was appointed as regent to manage the affairs of Egypt until he was old enough to rule.  Inscription from the tomb of Ineni records her role as regent - "the Divine Consort, Hatshepsut, settled the affairs of the Two Lands by reason of her plans. Egypt was made to labour with bowed head for her...the mistress of command".  This was following royal practice as she was: o The King's Great Wife' and sister of the previous pharaoh o The most experienced member of the royal family to undertake the role  Female regencies were common in Egyptian history and in the 18th Dynasty there had been 2 previous examples: o Ahhotep ruled for Ahmose o Ahmose-Nefertari ruled for Amenhotep I

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For the first 2 years of the regency Hatshepsut appears to have accepted her position. This is indicated by: o Continuing use of the insignia and titles of queen (King's Great Wife etc.) o Her depiction on monuments in a secondary role to Thutmose III Bradley - "Despite her apparent low profile at this time, the evidence points to the fact that from the beginning she was well and truly in full control of the government" - see Ineni's tomb inscription for evidence. After this period the evidence points to a gradual accumulation of new powers e.g.: o Use of kingly iconography in her portrayal e.g. offering directly to the gods o Use of titles or phrases usually associated with the king e.g. 'Mistress of the Two Lands' o Use of the important religious title 'God's Wife of Amun', indicating an influential position in the cult of Amun at Thebes. o Use of the exclusive privileges of a king e.g. construction of a pair of obelisks at Karnak. Somewhere between Years 2 and 7 Hatshepsut also began to use her throne name, Maatka-re, indicating her intention to rule. Tyldesley - Hatshepsut was "using the time [her regency] to gather the support that she would need for her unorthodox actions". Features that may have made her actions acceptable to the courtiers: o Her role as God's Wife of Amun while queen consort would have gained her the support of the Amu priesthood o Supports of her father would have transferred their support to his daughter o She was involved in affairs of government during her husband's reign (he was in poor health) gave her valuable political experience o Redford - "her chief supporter was her steward Senenmut...who throughout most of the reign appears to have been something of a power behind the throne" o Lack of evidence for opposition to her accession

KING OF UPPER AND LOWER EGYPT  Medcalf - "it is the next step that Hatshepsut took that has aroused so much controversy. At some time between Year 2 and Year 7...Hatshepsut was crowned as pharaoh and so became a co-regent with Thutmose III".  Evidence for Year 2: o Inscription from a block of her Red Chapel, dated to Year 2, which refers to the proclamation of an oracle predicting her accession.  Evidence for Year 7: o Funerary amphorae found in the tomb of Senenmut's parents: one is inscribed with date 'Year 7', and 2 are stamped with the royal name Maat-ka-re.  By Year 7 Hatshepsut had abandoned the titles and insignia of a queen and adopted the full titulary of a king.  Hatshepsut took precedence of position in the dyarchy (which lasted for at least 13 years, until her death). Her seniority is indicated by evidence such as: o The tomb biography of the official Ineni, which describes Thutmose III as king but Hatshepsut as head of the administration. o A statue of Ineni, which describes Hatshepsut as 'Mistress of the Two Lands'. o Shared monuments that display Hatshepsut's image and cartouche in front of those of Thutmose III.  Historians have debated Hatshepsut's motives for becoming king:

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o Tyldesley - Thutmose III was "growing up and attracting his own supporters, there was also the possibility that he might die in infancy, lessening Hatshepsut's own claim to the throne" o Callender - that Thutmose II was born of "another, non-royal woman" and had "less royal blood in his veins than ran through her own, may have caused Hatshepsut to decide to take the Double Crown for her own...Hatshepsut may also have had Egypt's best interests at heart: she was somewhat older and certainly wiser" o Robins - "she had come to enjoy the exercise of power; she probably found the prospect of giving it up unpleasant". Callender - she delayed her "assumption of kingly prerogatives until some time after the legitimate coronation of Thutmose III... in delaying her claim until he actually wore the crown, she clearly usurped the throne of a reigning king". Having proclaimed herself king, Hatshepsut set about legitimising her right to rule. She did this by: o Emphasising her divine conception and birth. o Stating that Thutmose I had chosen her as his heir and crowned her in the presence of the royal court. o Recording an oracle allegedly given by Amun in which he pronounced her as the future ruler.

PROPAGANDA   

As a female pharaoh she was "clearly breaking with the tradition of male rulers" (Hurley). The Divine Birth and Coronation Inscriptions on the north wall of the middle colonnade of her Deir el-Bahri temple are separated into 2 registers, one above the other, but they constitute a thematic cycle in which Hatshepsut set out her claim to the throne. The inscriptions demonstrate the importance she attached to her royal bloodline and her relationship to Thutmose I. May have felt that as daughter of a pharaoh AND great wife she had more claim to the throne that Thutmose III. Hatshepsut's divine conception and birth  Scenes and texts describing her birth are found on the lower register.  The role played by Amun is given extra importance, as she was keen to stress her religious claim as both the spiritual and physical daughter of the god.  Bradley - "there was nothing new in the claims of a pharaoh to be the physical son of the predominant god...Hatshepsut's predecessors in the 18th Dynasty claimed AmunRe to be their father".  Sequence of events: 1) Amun prophesises her birth to a council of gods. 2) The god Thoth announces to Queen Ahmose that she would give birth to a daughter who would be a future pharaoh. 3) The sexual union of Ahmose and Amun (conveyed by the god offering the ankh to the queen's nostrils), who takes the form of Thutmose I. "She waked at the fragrance of the god...his love passed into her limbs". 4) The god Khnum forms her on a potter's wheel. 5) Hatshepsut is born. 6) Hatshepsut is suckled and the royal crown is placed on her head.  Breasted - her claims to be the physical daughter of Amun "was a violent wrenching of the traditional details...for the entire legend was fitted only to a man".

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Because divine birth was traditionally associated with a male, the story had to be adapted to a female ruler. As a result the scenes contain a number of contradictions: o The depiction of Hatshepsut as a young boy with male genitalia o References to her using both male and female terminology

Hatshepsut's coronation  Illustrated on the upper register and forms a sequel to the scenes of the divine birth.  Gives details of her royal status and her coronation as pharaoh,  Consists of a number of sections in which she emphasises her political right to the throne because her father, Thutmose I, chose her as his heir.  Main features: 1) She is purified 2) Amun "shows her to all the gods of the South and the North" 3) She accompanied her father on as journey through Egypt to attend the shrines of the gods who welcomed her as a future king 4) She is crowned by the gods (by Atum at Heliopolis and by Amun at Thebes) 5) She is crowned by Thutmose I in front of the court  Address of Thutmose I to the court - "This is my daughter... Hatshepsut, who liveth, I have appointed her; she is my successor upon my throne, she will sit upon my wonderful seat".  Most historians (Breasted, Gardiner) regard the story of her coronation as invented, and propaganda created by Hatshepsut to justify her accession because: o Her titles at the time were only those of queen consort o The reign of Thutmose II is ignored o The date of the event does not correspond with inscriptions on other monuments o Breasted rejects its authenticity because it is "taken verbatim from the account of ...