Session -3 -Learning Theories PDF

Preview

Summary

Most helpful sheet....

Description

Session 3 HRM 407

Training and Development NAR Learning and Transfer of Training Chapter 4 Learning

Training and Learning The purpose of the training is to help employees learn so they can successfully perform their jobs. For learning to occur, it is important to identify what is to be learned—that is, to identify learning outcomes. Learning outcomes should be related to what is required to successfully perform the job. Learning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes-

1. Verbal information includes names, facts, and bodies of knowledge. Verbal information includes specialized knowledge that employees need in their jobs. For example, a TQM manager must know the names of different types of equipment as well as the body of knowledge related to Total Quality Management.

2. Intellectual skills include concepts and rules. These concepts and rules are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products. For example, a manager must know the steps in the performance appraisal process in order to conduct an employee appraisal.

3. Motor skills include coordination of physical movements. For example, a climber must have the coordination and dexterity necessary to climb ladders and ropes.

4. Attitudes are a combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave a certain way. Attitudes include a cognitive component (beliefs), an affective component (feeling), and a behavioral component. Training programs may be used to develop or change attitudes because attitudes have been shown to be related to physical and mental withdrawal from work, turnover, and behaviors that impact the wellbeing of the company (e.g., helping new employees).

5. Cognitive strategies regulate the processes of learning. They relate to the learner’s decision regarding what information to attend to (i.e., pay attention to), how to remember, and how to solve problems. For example, we recall the colors of the rainbow through remembering the name “Roy G. Biv” (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). As this chapter points out, each learning outcome requires a different set of conditions for learning to occur. Before this chapter investigates the learning process in detail, it looks at the theories that help to explain how people learn.

Learning Theories Several theories relate to how people learn. Each theory relates to different aspects of the learning process. 1. Reinforcement Theory: Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors. There are several processes in reinforcement theory. Positive reinforcement is a

pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant outcome. For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding noises unless the operator holds levers in a certain position. The operator will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises. Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behavior, leading to a decrease in that behavior. From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring knowledge or skills or changing behaviors. 2. Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. The models’ behavior or skill that is rewarded is adopted by the observer. According to social learning theory, learning new skills or behaviors comes from – 1. Directly experiencing the consequences of using that behavior or skill, or 2. The process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior.

3. Goal Setting Theory: Goal setting theory assumes that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence a person’s behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Specific challenging goals result in better performance and commitment to goal than vague, unchallenging goals. Also, employees are less likely to be committed to a goal if they believe it is too difficult. Goals should be SMART to motivate learning. Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time bound goals motivate employees learn the training with maximum effort so that the result is visible and remarkable. An employee will only try to learn operating a machine within 10 days if he knows that this will enable him increase his monthly production rate at 30%. 4. Adult Learning Theory: Most educational theories as well as formal educational institutions have been developed exclusively to educate children and youth. Pedagogy, the art and science of teaching children, has dominated educational theory. Educational psychologists, recognizing the limitations of formal education theories, developed andragogy, the theory of adult learning. Malcolm Knowles has proposed some assumptions about adult learning theory that a training designer should keep in mind1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. 2. Adults have a need to be self-directed. 3. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation. 4. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning. 5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting. Many adults believe that they learn through experience. As a result, trainers need to provide opportunities for trainees to experience something new and discuss it or review training materials based on their experiences.

5. Information Processing Theory: Compared to other learning theories, information processing theories give more emphasis to the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained by a learner. Figure 4.3 shows a model of information processing. Information processing theory proposes that information or messages received by the learner go through some transformations in the human brain. there are 3 different memory storage systems or stages through which information must travel if it is to be remembered. These are1. Sensory memory 2. Short-term memory 3. Long-term memory

Information processing begins when a message or stimuli (which could be sound, smell, touch, or pictures) from the environment is received by receptors (ears, nose, skin, eyes) and enters sensory memory, which holds the information for 1 second only. The information then moves to short-term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds. Finally, the information to long-term memory which is a storehouse of almost unlimited capacity. Like a new file we save on a hard drive, the information in long-term memory is filed and coded so that we can retrieve it when we need it. Long-term memory has different components which represents a separate memory system in the brain. This are

Declarative memory: Memory for factual information: names, faces, date etc.



Procedural memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a ball;



Episodic memory: Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.

Whether the information moves from short-term to long-term memory depends on the repetition of the material and the receiver’s emotional link to that information. A search process occurs in memory when we try to use that stored information. The response generator organizes the responses and instructs our effectors (our body or muscles) about what to do. The “what to do” relates to one of the five learning outcomes: verbal information, cognitive skills, motor skills, intellectual skills, or attitudes. The final link in the model is feedback from the environment. This feedback provides the learner with an evaluation of the response given. This information can come from another person or the learner’s own observation of the results of his or her action. A positive evaluation of the response provides reinforcement that the behavior is desirable and should be stored in long-term memory to use in similar situations. This information processing model highlights how verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, meaningful learning context (examples, problems) facilitate coding and learning of a trainee.

The learning process For understanding the learning process, we need to consider 2 thingsA. The physical and mental processes involved in learning B. The learning cycle

A. Mental and Physical Processes The basic learning process includes the following components1. Expectancy: Expectancy refers to the mental state that the learner brings to the training. This includes factors such as readiness for training (motivation to learn, basic skills) , understanding of the purpose of the training and the expectation of benefits that may result from learning. 2. Perception: Perception refers to the ability to organize the message from the environment so that it can be processed, stored and applied. 3. Working Storage: The sensory and short term memory is involved here, where rehearsal and repetition of information occur, allowing material to be coded for memory. Working storage is limited by the amount of material that can be processed (five messages) at any one time. 4. Semantic encoding: Semantic encoding refers to the actual coding process of incoming messages. Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded. Learning strategies include rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration. 

Rehearsal, the simplest learning strategy, focuses on learning through repetition (memorization).



In organizing the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material.( Solving math)



In elaboration the trainee relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge, skills, or behaviors.

5. Long term storage: After messages have been received, rehearsed, and coded, they are ready for storage in long-term memory. 6. Retrieval: Retrieval involves identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance. To use learned material (e.g., cognitive skills, verbal information), it must be retrieved . 7. Generalizing: An important part of the learning process is not only being able to reproduce exactly what was learned but also being able to adapt the learning for use in similar situations. This is known as generalizing. 8. Gratifying: Finally, gratifying refers to the feedback that the learner receives as a result of using learning content. Feedback is necessary to allow the learner to adapt responses so they are more appropriate.

B. The Learning Cycle Learning can be considered a dynamic cycle that involves four stages1. Concrete experience 2. Reflective observation 3. Abstract conceptualization 4. Active experimentation.

1.

A trainee encounters a concrete experience (e.g., a work problem).

2. Then S/He thinks about the problem and that reflects his/her own observation about the problem (reflective observation). 3.

This leads to generation of ideas of how to solve the problem (abstract conceptualization)

4. Finally the learner implements the ideas directly to the problem (active experimentation).

Trainees continually develop concepts, translate them into ideas, implement them, and adapt them as a result of their personal observations about their experiences. Researchers have tried to measure trainees’ weak and strong points in the learning cycle. Some people have a tendency to over- or underemphasize one stage of the learning cycle or to avoid certain stages. The key to effective learning is to be competent in each of the four stages....