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HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS LECTURE 1 + The Revealing Science of Social Psychology Social psychology: the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to another OR the study of how individuals thoughts, feelings and behaviour are influenced by the actual, imagine and implied presence of others Importance of one’s well-being in relationships ● People tend to be happier (varies between people) ● Mentally and physically healthier (lower heart disease/live longer) ● When people are rejected, it leads to physical and social pain Importance of relationships to behaviour ● People bond quickly by fast friends (two participants by asking a series of question to each other), or bond in groups (by asking people to be indifferent groups) ● Individuals would pursue celebratory events about their social bonds (e.g marriage) ● People would mourn the loss of losing the social bond (e.g death) ● Spend money to attract others (e.g plastic surgery, fitness) Earliest stages of developing relationships ● Form impressions (general idea of what someone is like) based on inferences (conclusions drawn from limited data) and stereotypes (biased opinion based on the group the person is in An Instinct-Based View of Human Behaviour (Spencer, 1855) ● Social behaviour is a result of the same evolutionary processes that produce physical characteristics such as body size and eye colour ● Societies evolve just as organisms do: become larger, more complex and differentiated over time Psychoanalytic Theory: Hidden Desires that Guide Behaviour (Freud) ● Human behaviour was directed primarily by aggressive (warding off predators and competing for sources) and sexual drive (reproducing and perpetuating genes) ● Uncontrolled aggression and sexuality undermine the communal order for a human to survive, Freud proposed that human being desire for sex and aggression are kept unconscious by repression until it is socially acceptable to consciously express it Behaviourism: Behaviour is Shape by Experience (Watson) ● Overt behaviour can be observed and measured, the phenomena such as feelings, wishes, unconscious processes and consciousness are unobservable fiction ● Instinctual behaviour is modified by experience and is possible that they are learned ● In a specified environment, behaviours followed by desired outcomes would be repeated, whereas behaviour followed by undesirable outcomes would not The Five Perspective 1. Cognitive: focus on how people perceive, remember and interpret events, individuals and themselves in the social world 2. Cultural: focus on the influence of culture on thought, feeling and behaviour 3. Evolutionary: focus on how humans are species of animals and that their social behaviours are a consequence of the particular evolved application 4. Existential: focus on the cognitive, affective, and behavioural consequences of basic aspects of the human condition such as the knowledge of morality, the desire for meaning, and the nature of identity 5. Neuroscience: focus on the neural processes that underlie social judgment and

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS behaviour Roots of Social Psychology ● In the mid-1880s, Herbert Spencer extended Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection to argue that the social behaviour of humans is the result of the same evolutionary processes. ● Freud claimed that human behaviour is driven by aggressive and sexual drives that are largely hidden from our conscious experience. ● Behaviourists argued that only overt behaviour can be directly observed and measured. They discounted the study of such things as feelings, wishes, and consciousness. ● The stage for modern social psychology was set by the integrative efforts of John Dewey, Floyd Allport, and Gardner and Lois Murphy. Perspective on Modern Society ● The social cognition perspective focuses on how we perceive, remember, and interpret events and people. ● The evolutionary perspective is a reinvigorated view of humans as a species of animal and of social behaviour as a consequence of evolutionary adaptations. ● The cultural perspective underscores the effect of culture on thinking and behaviour. ● The existential perspective focuses on basic human concerns such as mortality, meaning, and connection. ● The neuroscience perspective focuses on understanding the neural systems that underlie social processes. Four Core Assumption of Social Psychology 1. Behaviour is a joint product of the person and the situation 2. Behaviour depends on a socially constructed view of reality 3. Behaviour is strongly influenced by our social cognition 4. The best way to understand social behaviour is with the scientific method Explaining Behaviour through: ● Introspection ○ Not always truthful ○ Unsure of one's own knowledge ● Intuition observation ○ Unique and limited perspective ○ Reasoning processes may be biased to confirm what we set out to access ○ The act of observing may change the behaviour we seek to explain HISTORY, METHODS, AND THEORY + CHAPTER 1-2 Trends in Social Psychology ● Changes in focus (instinct, attitude, consistency, attributions, social cognition, automatic processing, neuro, culture, best research practices) ● Changes in issues (prejudice, aggression, riots, crime, multiculturalism, morality, religion) ● Changes in participants (gender, M to F, general to college students, MTurkers) ● Changes in the analysis (Univariate, Multivariate, Mediation) Biases: can influence us as individuals and therefore they can influence us as scientists. Research methods are in place to help to control these biases from influencing how researchers ask and answer questions.

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS ● ● ● ● ●

Self-serving Bias: The tendency to view oneself favourably Illusory Correlation: Seeing relations where none exists. Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the impact of the person and to underestimate the impact of the situation. Actor/Observer Bias: When judgments are affected by the perspective of the judge. Hedonic Bias: A desire to maximize good things and minimize bad things.

General Research Method ● Begin with a research Question ● Choose a theory ● Make a hypothesis ● Gather a sample ● Test hypothesis using 1 of 3 methods ○ Nonexperimental: examining the relationship between 2 or more variables in a natural setting. The criteria or signature of a nonexperimental study is that the variables have to be (1) observable and (2) measurable. ■ Obtain a random sample from the population ■ Obtain measures on 2 sets of variables that you think are related ■ Statistically test the relationship ■ Generalize the findings based on the sample back to the population ■ Strengths: Whether 2 variables are related, If some phenomena are predictable based on knowledge of another variable If variables are non-causal ○ Experimental - Signature: Control over the Independent Variables, Random assignment of the participants to conditions ■ Design materials and procedures to manipulate the IVs ■ Choose a sample and randomly assign them to the different conditions ■ Measure the effects of the IVs on the DVs ■ Generalize the results from the laboratory to life ■ Strengths: can determine causal relationships ■ Weaknesses: procedure can affect our ability to generalize from the lab to the real world, mundane realism vs. experimental realism ○ Quasi-experimental ○ Reasons for noncausal relations: the direction of the relationship is impossible to determine, possible 3rd variable problem ● Generalize results Major Theoretical Perspective ● Learning Theory ● Consistency/Balance Theory ● Attribution theory ● Exchange and Equity Theory Correlational Method ● Two or more variables measured/analyzed to determine whether they are related. ● A relationship between variables does not mean that one caused the other Experimental Method ● This process seeks to control variables so that cause and effect can be determined. ● The Independent variable is manipulated, its effect on the dependent variable is observed.

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS ●

Participants must be randomly assigned to conditions to ensure that observed differences between conditions can only be explained by the manipulation.

Evolution ● Evolution occurs through the process of natural selection, which is a consequence of variability and competition. ● Adaptations improve the organism’s prospects for survival and reproduction in its current environment. ● “Fit” does not always mean “tough.” What is adaptive depends on the interaction between the environment and the attributes of the organism. ● Adaptations are trade-offs. Evolution is not guided by any purpose or goal. Do not infer that an attribute is “more natural” or “better” just because it evolved. Lazarus’s Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotions: our subjective experience of emotions is determined by a two-step process involving a primary appraisal of benefit or harm, and a secondary appraisal providing a more differentiated emotional experience. 1. Stimulus 2. Primary appraisal: an immediate increase in physiology arousal 3. Secondary appraisal: interpretation of stimulus produces cognitive label for arousal, involving cultural knowledge, memories, expectations, and other high-level thinking 4. Emotional experience General Adaptation of the Cultural Animal ● Social being ○ Our evolved mind/brain is oriented to seek connection and avoid exclusion ○ People are sensitive to faces, social exclusion and rejection, group memberships and status hierarchies (these capacities helo the to get along with one another) ○ People are profoundly shaped by socialization throughout their lives ● Very intelligent being ○ Humans have unique capacities to imagine things that do not exist, think and communicate about the world using symbols and language, conceive themselves and their experiences access time and monitor and regulate their behaviour in sophisticated ways ○ People think using a combination of two systems: an experimental system (intuitive, nonconscious, automatic) and a controlled system (rational, conscious, effortful) ● Motivated, goal-striving being ○ Needs are necessary for survival; striving for goals is how people meet their needs. Both can influence behaviour without awareness ○ Hedonism is the motivation to approach pleasure and avoid pain. It is reflected in two fundamental human motivation: growth and security ○ The human can arrange goals in a hierarchy from concrete to abstract, allowing flexibility in self-regulation and planning ● Very emotional being ○ Emotions help people self regulate to achieve goals and to communicate internal states to other people ○ Human have background primary and secondary emotions ○ The experience of emotions is influenced by an initial rapid physiological response, followed by a secondary appraisal os the situation ○ Emotions and cognition affect each other

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS Ten Cross-Cultural Values (ranked by importance) 1. Benevolence: preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact; being helpful, honest, forgiving, responsible 2. Self-direction: independent thought and action; choosing one's own goals; the freedom to create and explore 3. Universalism: understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection of the welfare of all people and of nature. Advocating for justice, peace, and respect for other people and the environment 4. Security: safety, harmony and stability of society, of relationships and of self; maintaining social order, establishing trust and reciprocation with others 5. Conformity: restraints of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms. Obeying authorities; being polite. Self-discipline; honouring parent and elders 6. Achievement: personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards. Being ambitious and feeling competent 7. Hedonism: Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself, enjoying life 8. Stimulation: excitement, novelty, and challenge in life 9. Tradition: respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture and religion provide the self. Accepting one's role and observing cultural norms, customs, and rituals. Being devout and humble; accepting one's portion in life 10. Power: social status and prestige; control or dominance over people and resource; seeking authority, wealth, public esteem High levels of Collectivism in Culture ● Value group membership and group harmony ● Tolerance for inconsistencies in descriptions of the self across different role contexts. ● Fostering of an interdependent self-construal (Viewing self primarily in terms of how one relates to others and contributes to the greater whole) that define the self in relation to other verses evaluating the self in comparison to others ● a clear distinction between in-group and out-group, coupled with a marked preference for the in-group over the outgroup ● cognition that tends toward a holistic style that looks at four relations between parts; sensitivity to connection and context High levels of Individualism in Culture ● Valuing independence, uniqueness, autonomy ● General encouragement to express one's personal views even at the cost of disrupting social harmony ● preference for consistency of the self across different role context ● fostering of an independent self-construal (Viewing self as a unique active agent serving one’s own goals) that defines and evaluates the self as distinct from others ● a tendency to regard others as individuals, not members of groups, and to treat people the same regardless of a group membership ● cognition that tends toward an analytical style that looks four parts of the whole; sensitivity to separation and contrast Terror management theory: to minimize fear of mortality, humans strive to sustain the faith that they are enduringly valued contributors to a meaningful world and therefore transcend their physical death. ● cultural worldviews protect people against mortality fears. Consequently, people

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS primed to think about their deaths—that is, in a state of mortality salience—adhere more closely to their cultural worldview. In this study, after being reminded of death, judges imposed more punitive judgments on a prostitute because prostitution violates the cultural worldview’s standards for good and bad behaviour. How Culture Help Us Adapt ● Culture and the Physical Environment ○ Technological innovations and group living facilitated human adaptation to the natural environment ○ Adaptation to the physical environment depends on the challenges of local environments and the unique needs and values of the cultural groups that occupy them. ● Culture and the Social Environment ○ People in every culture must adapt to their social environment in terms of uncertainty about what they can and should do and orienting the self toward one’s relationships and personal goals. ○ Collectivistic cultures emphasize cooperation and group welfare. Individualistic cultures emphasize values such as individual achievement. This distinction has implications for how people conceptualize themselves, experience and display emotions, and form attitudes about outgroup members. ○ Modernization has a range of consequences, including increased mobility, that determines which values are most important to members of a culture. ● Culture and the Metaphysical Environment ○ Cultural worldviews help people understand why they are alive, what they should be doing while they are alive, and what will happen to them when they are dead ○ Both faiths in the cultural worldview and the maintenance of self-esteem manage the potential for anxiety stemming from the awareness of mortality. Because these are symbolic constructs, maintaining faith in them depends primarily on social consensus and validation. As a result, people defend them vehemently when threatened by others who challenge their views. ○ Tests of terror management theory support the hypothesis that reminding people of their mortality increases the protection of their worldviews and that undermining the worldview increases thoughts about death. ● Culture as a Synthesis of Human-Created Adaptations ○ Humans adapt to each of the three environments simultaneously because each is heavily influenced by adaptations in the other two domains. ○ Cultures can be defined as either holistic or analytical, on the basis of different metaphysical traditions. ○ Many aspects of a given culture reflect its adaptation to all three environments. Cultural Issues ● Cultures strike a balance between human needs for accurate information and for comforting beliefs that often obscure reality. ● Culture serves many vital functions that promote happiness and well-being. Culture also contributes to a variety of social ills in creating divides between people within and outside culture. Theory and research on cultural traumas reveal the psychological harm that results when one’s culture has disintegrated. ● Culture is not a single, blanket entity but contains important subcultural differences and influences.

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS ●

People coming to a new culture can struggle, but they can assimilate into and integrate aspects of the new culture.

JUDGING OURSELVES AND OTHERS + CHAPTER 4-5 Judging yourself: self-defined, assessing the self, protecting the self Self-concept: a set of thoughts and beliefs that define who people think they are and the way they regard themselves. In other words, the self involves specific beliefs about who you are ● Self-esteem: the positive and negative value that one places on him or herself. ● Self-efficacy: How confident and competent one believes one is ○ Our self-concept is important ○ It may be a function of differences between our self-concept and self-guides ○ These discrepancies feed our self-esteem ○ Feed the way we feel including depression. Development of Self ● Self-perception ● Direct feedback ● Social comparison ● Other’s judgments Self-Discrepancy Theory (X= self-concept, O= Self-guide/comparison) The domain of self -> Viewpoint

Actual

Ideal

Ought

Own

X

O

O (guilt)

Other

X

O (pride)

O (shame)

Self Protection Strategies ● Information Processing ○ Self-serving bias ○ False consensus ○ False uniqueness ● Impression Management ○ False modesty ○ Excuses ○ Ingratiation ○ Self-promotion ○ Exemplification ○ Supplication ○ Self-handicapping Remembering ● Our memories are often reconstructions rather than objective facts and are subject to bias. These reconstructed memories are influenced by our schemas, which generally guide us to remember information that is consistent with the most salient schema. ● The misinformation effect is an example of reconstructed memory because leading questions plant expectations that influence us to remember events differently than they actually occurred. ● We often base our judgments on how readily information comes to mind (the availability heuristic) and the ease with which we can retrieve it.

HH PSYC 2120 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PROF. WARD STRUTHERS Inferring Cause and Effect in the Social World ● The dimension of causal attribution ○ Locus of causality refers: whether attribution is made to an internal attribute of the actor or to some external factor in the person’s environment ○ Stability: whether a causal factor is presumed to be changeable or fixed ○ People who believe that attributes can change are more likely to seek opportunities to improve an area related to that attribute ● Fundamental attribution error ○ We tend to attribute the behaviour of others to internal factors ○ We generally attribute our own behaviour to the situation ○ Although the FAE occurs across different cultures, collectivist, collectivist cultures often emphasize situational factors more than individualistic cultures do ● A three-stage model ○ A behaviour is observed and labelled ○ An internal attribution is made ○ Situati...