Social structure and political organisation - packages of information PDF

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Spartan social structure and political organisation – packages of information 1. The early history of Sparta:  We know very little about Sparta’s early history. It is the stuff of myths and legends, like all of Bronze Age Greece’s history. The key source from this period is Homer’s Illiad, which tells the story of Greece’s war with Troy. The war is said to have started when the king of Troy’s son, Paris, ran off with Hellen, the wife of Sparta’s king, Menalaus. In fact, we do not know if there really was such a war, or if it took place at or because of Troy. We do not even know if Homer existed.  Around 1100 BC (the end of the 12th century), Greece’s Bronze Age civilisation came to a sudden end. We do not know why.  Around the 9th century, Dorian migrants from the north arrived in the Peloponnese. Some settled in the valley of the Eurotas River, around the city of Sparta. They quickly conquered all the peoples of the valley, dubbing them perioikoi (meaning ‘those who live around’). The perioikoi went on to become craftsmen and traders, serving their Spartan masters but lacking citizenship.  As the population increased, the Spartans sought more and better agricultural land, to the west in Messenia. In two bloody wars in the 7th century, each lasting 20 years, the region was conquered and the people reduced to slaves (helots). (Messenia did not regain its freedom till 369 BC, following the Battle of Leuctra.)  Herodotus and Thucydides tell us that following the conquest of Messenia the Spartan state experienced a period of lawlessness. In response, a series of political and social reforms were introduced that transformed Sparta into a military state. These reforms were an example of what the Greeks called eunomia– ‘good order and good government’.  Ancient scholars like Herodotus and Aristotle attributed the reforms to Lycurgus. Plutarch, who wrote many centuries later, bemoaned the lack of evidence for Lycurgus. In fact, almost all the accounts of Lycurgus’ life contradict each other. We do not even know if he existed. Certainly if he did exist, he did not introduce all of the reforms himself. Most modern historians believe they were introduced over a period of time, and attributed to Lycurgus for the sake of simplicity and good storytelling. 2. The Great Rhetra:  According to Plutarch, Sparta’s constitution originated in the form of a rhetra (proclamation) by the Oracle of Delphi. This rhetra was supposedly brought back to Sparta by Lycurgus, who then proceeded to implement it. Historians date the Great Rhetra to the 7th century BC.  The Great Rhetrais is supposed to have set out the basic elements of the Spartan political system. According to it, power was to be shared by the two kings and the Gerousia (council of elders). According to the ancient sources, the Rhetra was never written down, but few modern historians believe this can have been the case.  According to Plutarch, Lycurgus also introduced a radical land reform program, under which farmland was shared out equally among Sparta’s citizens. 3. Sparta’s system of government:  Sparta was the first state in Greece to introduce a ‘social contract’, by which the duties of its citizens were counterbalanced by a set of privileges and rights.

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It was also the first state to introduce a political system containing checks and balances on the power of government. Sparta’s system was part monarchy, part oligarchy and part democracy. The kings were the monarchical element. Sparta had two hereditary kings, with responsibility for the army, public roads and religious affairs. They were kept in check by the other branches of government, as well as by each other. In times of war, one of the kings led the army on campaign. The Gerousia was the oligarchic element. It was a council of 30 elders, consisting of the two kings plus 28 officials of noble birth, each aged 60 years or more. Members (other than the kings) were elected by the people, and held office for life. The Gerousia advised the other branches of government, and acted as a court of criminal justice – particularly in cases involving the kings. It proposed legislation, which would be put to the Ekklesia (Assembly) for endorsement. The ephors were the democratic element. The five ephors were responsible for the dayto day running of the state. They were elected by the Ekklesia – one from each territorial region – and served for a single year. Re-election was not possible. The ephors accompanied the king on campaign, to protect the interests of the state. Some of their duties included calling meetings of the Gerousia and the Ekklesia, receiving foreign ambassadors and overseeing most civil and criminal cases. They also controlled the education and military training system (known as the agoge). The Ekklesia (also called the Apella) was another democratic element. It was an assembly of the people, which met once a month. Every male citizen aged 30 and over could participate in it. The Ekklesia elected the Gerousia and the ephors, and voted on motions put to it by the Gerousia. Such motions included the declaration of war and the appointment of military commanders. It could not initiate legislation. Nor could ordinary citizens (Spartiates) address the Ekklesia; only the kings, ephors and members of the Gerousia could speak. The Gerousia could also veto decisions made by the Ekklesia. Isocrates summed up Sparta’s political system by saying it was “an oligarchy at home and a monarchy on campaign.” It should be noted that none of Sparta’s elected positions were funded by the state, meaning that only the wealthy could afford to hold office. In this way, Sparta was more of an oligarchy than a democracy.

4. The role of the kings:  The two kings came from two of Sparta’s oldest families – the Agiads and Eurypontids. They had military, religious, judicial and administrative roles in Sparta’s political system.  Militarily, the kings acted as supreme commanders of the army. Herodotus tells us that the kings had the “power of declaring war on whomever they pleased.” Only one would lead the army on campaign; the other would remain behind in the capital. Given that there was no retirement age for the kings, they often had to lead the army when they were quite old. Leonidas, for example, was about 60 when he died at Thermopylae.  Religiously, the kings served as Sparta’s chief priests. They carried out monthly sacrifices to Apollo, appointed the two representatives who consulted with the oracle of Delphi, and prepared the necessary sacrifices prior to battles and military campaigns.  Judicially, the kings had responsibility for the marriage of heiresses and the adoption of children.  Administratively, the kings had responsibility for maintaining public roads.  The kings could ignore decisions of the Ekklesia (Assembly) that were not to their liking.

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5. Limitations on the power of the kings  The system of dual kingship ensured that each king could keep a check on the other.  Their power was also limited by the constitution – meaning they could be removed from office if they breached Sparta’s laws. It was the responsibility of the ephors to ensure that they behaved appropriately. One king who did not was Pausanias, who was charged with treason following his campaign in Propontis in 478 BC. After the ephors ordered his arrest he fled to the Temple of Athena, but the ephors had the doors sealed up and starved him out. He died soon after surrendering.  It was also the responsibility of the ephors to accompany the king on campaign – advising him and keeping watch on his behaviour. 6. Privileges of the kings  The two Spartan kings enjoyed relatively few privileges.  Their main privilege was that they were supported by the state for life. They also had seats of honour at all religious festivals and public games. At such activities they were served their meals first and received double portions of food. Another privilege was that they were given the skins of all animals sacrificed while on campaign. 7. Social class:  There were four social classes in Sparta: Spartiates, perioikoi, helots and inferiors.  The social system was very rigid. It was impossible for a perioikoi to become a Spartiate. However, it was possible for a helot to be emancipated. 8. Spartiates:  They were the citizens of Sparta. To be a Spartiate, a man had to be able to trace his ancestry back to the foundation of the state. He also had to own a plot of land, belong to a military barracks and successfully complete the rigorous education system known as the agoge.  Only Spartiates were permitted to own land. This could either be inherited or allocated by the government. They were also assigned state-owned serfs (helots) to work that land. The Spartiates themselves were prohibited from carrying out any form of trade. Instead, they spent their time training for war or actually fighting it.  Spartiates of all ages lived in communal barracks (syssitia), where they shared meals and stories. This system assisted the training and development of young men, and bonded them together into a formidable military unit.  Spartiates were the only people who could participate in the political system. Those aged 30 or over could vote in the Ekklesia, stand for office as ephors, or be elected to the Gerousia.  In 479 BC there were about 5,000 Spartiates of military age. 9. Perioikoi:  The work perioikoi (also spelt perioeci) meant ‘those who live around’. The perioikoi were the descendants of those inhabitants of the Eurotas valley who were conquered by the Spartans.  During the Classical period, the perioikoi were free inhabitants of Lakonia and Messenia, but were not citizens. They worked as craftsmen and traders in the towns. Given their monopoly over trade, many became wealthy.  Because they were not citizens of Sparta, the perioikoi could not participate in the Spartan political system. However, they did enjoy autonomy in their own communities,

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though those communities were ultimately subject to Spartan law. (The ephors would only intervene in perioikoi communities if Spartan interests were at stake.) Despite not being citizens, perioikoi still had to serve in the Spartan army. They served in separate units from the Spartiates till the middle of the 5th century, but were integrated with them after that. The perioikoi produced all the weapons used by the Spartan army. The perioikoi outnumbered the Spartiates by up to four to one. Even so, there is very little evidence of them being disloyal to their masters.

10. Helots:  The helots (meaning ‘those captured’) were a slave class in Lakonia and Messenia. Their ancestors were enslaved by the Spartans in the 7th century, following the conquest of Messenia.  All helots were owned by the state and were assigned to the Spartiates as agricultural workers. They had no legal standing in Sparta, although they were far better off than slaves in other parts of Greece, as they could not be bought or sold by their masters. In addition, they could marry whomever they chose and could keep 50 percent of what they produced. (The other 50 percent was taken by their Spartiate masters.) Some helots were able to save enough money to buy their freedom.  Helots accompanied the Spartan army on campaign, probably serving as aides or lightly armed slingers. They could be granted their freedom in return for acts of extreme bravery.  Although most helots served their masters loyally, uprisings were not uncommon – particularly in Messina, where the entire population had been enslaved. The best known rebellion was in the 460s. It was so serious that the Spartans were forced to call on outside help to suppress it.  The helots outnumbered the Spartans by up to ten to one. Because of this, the latter were always wary of a helot uprising.  To keep the helots in line, newly elected ephors would declare war on them every autumn. Following this declaration, Spartan citizens had the right to kill helots without fear of punishment. Any helots found outside after dark could be killed by members of the krypteia. Even so, such pogroms cannot have been common, as helots were extremely valuable. 11. Inferiors:  Inferiors (hypomeiones) were those who had been cast out of Spartan society. They included cowards, criminals, Spartiates who had been unable to meet their obligations to the state, the children of unmarried mothers (parthenai) or of relationships between helots and perioikoi.  Inferiors had to go unshaven, wear special clothing, and sit alone at festivals. They were also prohibited to marry. Even so, some – such as Spartiates who had been stripped of their citizenship – appear to have had greater social standing than perioikoi. 12. The krypteia:  The krypteia was a Spartan institution that served to terrorise the helots and keep them in line. Some historians believe it served as Sparta’s secret police force. Others believe it was part of the military training system for Spartan youth.  Upon completion of the agoge (education system), the most promising young men were given the chance to demonstrate their skills by participating in the krypteia. These kryptes were set loose in the countryside, with the task of killing any helots they

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encountered after dark. This was a test of their toughness and their ruthlessness. Those who performed well were earmarked for leadership in Sparta. Various other methods were used by the Spartans to keep the helots under control. One was never to deploy the entire army on campaign, thereby ensuring there would be enough soldiers at home to deal with a helot uprising. Another was the syssitia system, which ensured that there were armed Spartiates throughout the countryside ready to deal with any trouble. Finally, the helots were given just enough incentive to remain satisfied with their place in Spartan society.

13. Childhood:  When a Spartan boy was born it would be presented to the Gerousia, to decide if he should live or die. If he was deemed weak, he would be thrown into a gorge at Mount Taygetus. In this way the Spartans practiced an early form of eugenics (improvement of the genetic quality of the population by artificial selection).  Boys were raised by their families till the age of 7, when they entered the agoge (the military education system). 14. The education system (the agoge):  Up until the age of 7, Spartan boys were raised by their mothers. They then entered the education system– the agoge (meaning ‘rearing’). This system was developed to prepare men for service in the army. It emphasised discipline, physical toughness and loyalty to the Spartan state.  Between 7 and 12, boys lived in communal messes (syssitia), under the tutelage of adult males. The mess was a barracks, where men and boys shared meals, and where instruction took place.  The training boys received was in military tactics, the use of weapons, hunting dancing, singing, reading and writing. Music was seen as an integral part of military training, since orders in battle were often delivered musically. Dance was also seen as important, as battle drills required men to perform in perfect unison. Finally, basic reading and writing were taught so that boys could read military maps.  At 12, boys began their proper military training. They continued to live in the syssitia, but spent increasing amounts of time in the wilds, where they learned to tolerate hardship and pain. They were given few clothes, no shoes and insufficient food. To encourage resourcefulness, they were expected to steal much of what they needed. However, they were brutally punished if they were caught (not for stealing, but for being caught).  From the age of 12 a boy began a relationship with an older youth – part instructional, part physical. We don’t understand much about this relationship, other than the fact that it wasn’t homosexual, as the boy would later marry and have a family.  At 18 young men were deemed to be adults and were permitted to marry, although they still had to live in their syssitia. They were also accepted into the Spartan army, but could not serve in the front lines until they reached 23. They also became mentors for the younger boys.  At 20 they could apply for membership of one of the syssitia (communal messes), where they would live until they turned 30. Entry to the more prestigious syssitia was very competitive. We do not know how many members each syssitia had. Plutarch suggests 15, but other sources suggest the number was higher.  Finally, when Spartan men turned 30 they were granted full citizenship – assuming they had successfully completed their military training. They could now live with their

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families and participate in the political system, though they were still expected to dine in the syssitia each night. Girls were also given a rigorous education, but with less emphasis on military matters. They learned dance, gymnastics and other sports, as well as music, poetry and military education.

15. The role of the Spartan army  The Spartans developed their military system in the second half of the 7th century, following their defeat by Argos at the Battle of Hysiai in 669 BC.  All Spartiates between 18 and 60 served in the Spartan army. These men were full-time soldiers. Starting in the 5th century, perioikoi were also required to serve, but only in times of war. Helots could only serve as aides or lightly armed slingers.  The basic army unit was the enomotia which consisted of 32 men. It was the equivalent of a modern-day platoon. Four enomotiai formed a pentekostys, or company, and two of those formed a lochos, or battalion. Finally, four lochoi formed a mora, or regiment. The Spartan army had five morai in the Classical period – a total of about 5,000 Spartiates. There was also an elite group of 300 men known as the hippeis (knights). They appear to have been a bodyguard for the two kings.  The Spartiate component of the army consisted entirely of hoplites – soldiers armed with short swords and long spears. For protection they had bronze helmets, breastplates and grieves, plus a shield made of oak and coated in bronze. The shield (hoplon) was a metre in diameter, and so sturdy that it could stop a spear in full flight.  Spartan hoplites fought in a phalanx – a formation of men 8 to 12 ranks deep. Protected by their shield wall, the hoplites would engage the enemy at close quarters using their short swords, then push forward until the enemy line broke. Each Spartiate was accompanied on campaign by a helot, who acted as his servant.  The perioikoi served as light infantry, often in a skirmishing role. Skirmishers spread out in front of the main force of hoplites, seeking intelligence about the enemy’s movements.  Spartiates were expected to hold onto their shields at all times. Loss of a shield was seen as evidence of cowardice. Plutarch tells us that, for this reason, mothers would urge their sons to return from battle either “with their shields or on their shields” (i.e. dead).

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