Sociology 2205 Biological Perspective PDF

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Lecture notes from Dr. Sandra Enns' Sociology 2205. These notes include both what is on the Power Point slides that she provides, but also elaboration provided in class. These notes are essential to being able to complete the assigned journals and essays. This set of notes includes information on bi...

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Biological Perspective Biological Theories of Crime  Many criminologists have resisted biological explanation of crime due to number of factors o Some of the early biological research, such as that of Lombroso, has been largely discredited o Concepts such as that of the born criminal appear ludicrous in light of our knowledge about the role of the environment in crime and of the CJS in labeling people as criminals o Resistance also stems from a concern that these theories seems to leave little for society to do about crime, except to remove criminals from society or to intervene aggressively into human reproduction (eugenics, forced sterilization) o While surgical castration or sex offenders has been practiced in some US states to most scholars, intervening so radically is both repugnant and lets society off the hook and the purposed social roots of crime, such as poverty and racism, are ignored  What do we do with them in society, do we punish them or do we let it go if its completely out of their control  There are new developments in the biological and genetic fields of crime that will undoubtedly exert a significant influence on the way crime and human behaviour are viewed in the future  One of the most noteworthy developments has been the Human Genome Project o Dr. Michael Smith  The aim of this project is to identify the 25,000 or so many genes in human DNA and to store this info to electronic databases to allow for further research o See what the genes contribute to illness, disease, aging etc. o The ability to create “designer babies” o We have the ability to clone people, but it is illegal  Biological explanations are justified on the basis that sociological theories cannot explain why people sharing the same social environment including siblings, can behave very differently o Twin studies  Today, biological and social influences on behaviour are viewed as acting in concert, in a complex casual change  But they are not necessarily of equal importance in all cases  In some cases, biological factors may be so dominant that there is a lesser role for social influences, and vice versa Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime  as a recent meeting of the American Neurological Association, two neuroscience researchers reported on the case of a man with no history of pedophilia who began molesting children after developing an egg-sized brain tumor

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according to the neuroscientists, friends of the man told investigators that the 40 year old married teacher had never previously exhibited abnormal impulses but suddenly starting visiting prostitutes, making sexual advances towards children, and spending time on child porn sites although he entered a treatment program for pedophiles, he propositioned women at the facility and was expelled at the same time, he began having headaches and went to a hospital ER where he told doctors he was having strong sexual urges and was afraid he would rape his landlady an MRI showed he had a large tumor in the right frontal cortex of his brain the tumor was successfully removed and the mans abnormal urges disappeared later, however, the reoccurred, and another scan showed the tumor had returned once again, it was removed, and the man’s behaviour returned to normal the neuroscientists reported the tumor was located in the part of the brain associated with social judgements and self-control, and they speculated it was the cause of his sexual urges “we’re dealing with the neurology of morality”

Biological Theories  Many biological theories have been advanced to explain criminality: o Abnormalities of the brain o Genetic predispositions o Vitamin deficiencies o Excess of hormones (esp. testosterone) o Hyopo/hyper-glycaemia (high/low blood sugar) o Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) o Brain chemical imbalance Brain Damage due to Trauma  Injury to the brain can occur as a result of sever blows to the head arising from accidents or assaults  Observations of patients who have experienced brain injuries indicate that these patients are often aggressive and display difficulty controlling their tempers  Some studies have found that a significant percentage of violent men and young offenders have experienced head traumas serious enough to cause brain injury  Some psychiatrists argue that most homicide offenders suffer from some form of brain damage, whether sustained before or during birth or at some point during life  Many experience seizures and mental blackouts, suggesting neurological damage  One of the most notorious cases of the impact of brain injuries involved Montrealborn professional wrestler, Chris Benoit  On June 25 2007, Benoit, his wife, and seven-year-old son were found dead in their Georgia home in what turned out to be a murder-suicide  While it was widely suspected that this incident was the case of rage brought about by the abuse of steroids by the wrestler, toxicology results found no artificial steroids in his system

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Instead, an analysis of his brain revealed that his brain was so severely damaged that of an 85-year-old Alzheimer’s patients

EEG Abnormalities  Numerous studies that have examined the brain activity of violent prisoners reveal significant differences between the EEGs of criminals and those of noncriminals  Other findings relate significantly slow brain wave activity to young offenders and adult murderers  One study that examined the criminal records and EEG’s of 265 children in a birth cohort in Denmark found that certain types of brain wave activity enabled investigators to predict whether convicted thieves would steal again Fetal Alcohol Disorder (FAS)  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) refer to conditions caused by exposure to alcohol in the womb  FAS always involves brain damage, impaired growth, and head and face anomalies  FASD refers to the range of birth defects caused by prenatal alcohol damage  FASD children may exhibit poor coordination, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, developmental disabilities, low IQ, and poor reasoning and judgement skills  They are also at risk for a range of psychiatric problems, criminal behavior, unemployment, low levels of education and victimization Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder  AD/HD, which affects 3-5% of children (most often boys), is a relatively common form of minimal brain dysfunction  Symptoms include: o Lack of attention o Poor school performance o Poor concentration o Acting without thinking o Lack of organizational skills o Constant fidgeting o Bullying o Lack of response to discipline  Research links AD/HD to the onset and sustenance of a delinquent career; the disorder is 9x more likely to be found in delinquent children Biochemical Factors  Some researchers believe that biochemical conditions, both those that are genetically predetermined and those acquired through diet and environment, control and influence antisocial behaviour  This view of crime received national attention in 1979 when Dan White, the killer of the San Fran mayor Harvey Milk, he defended himself with testimony on the impact of sugar on his behavior

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However, Milk was the city’s first openly gay mayor and White, a former police officer was also on city council, opposed to Milk’s political reforms Later named the “Twinkie defense” although Twinkies were never mentioned in the court room, the defense did argue diminished mental capacity die to depression (leading to high levels of sugar ingestion and thus erratic behaviour) Jurors found White incapable of the premeditation required and therefore convicted him of voluntary manslaughter

Nutritional Deficiencies  Bio criminologists maintaining that minimum levels of vitamins and minerals are needed for normal brain functioning, especially in the early years of life  People who are not receiving appropriate nutrition will suffer from vitamin deficiency  This lack results in many physical, mental, and behavioural problems, including lower intelligence  Studies on young criminal offends as well as in adults with psychiatric disordered have found a large effect of diet on symptoms such as depression, mood swings, and aggression Sugar and Crime  Another suspected nutritional influence on behaviour is a diet especialy high in carbohydrates and sugar  For example, how the brain processes glucose has been related to scores on tests measuring reasoning power  diets high in sugar and carbs are linked to violence and aggression  an experiment with 276 incarcerated youth was conducted to determine whether a change in the amount of sugar in their diet would have a corresponding influence on their behaviour  these changes produced a decline of 45% in the number of assaults, thefts, fights, and incidents of disobedience within the institution  other researchers have failed to find a link  one group of research has children described as sensitive to sugar follow a different diet for three consecutive three-week period o one was high in sucrose o the second substitutes aspartame as a sweetener o the third relied on saccharin  careful measurement found little evidence of cognitive or behavioural differences Hypoglycemia  Hypoglycemia is a condition that coours when glucose in the blood falls below levels necessary for normal brain functioning  The brain is the only organ that obtains its energy solely from the combustion of carbds  When the brain is deprived of blood sugar, it has no alternative food supply to call on and it slows down  Symptoms include:

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o Irratibility, anxiety, depression, crying spells o Fatigue, insomnia, nervousness, mood swings, phobias, o Temper outbursts, headaches, confusion Hypoglycemia has been linked to outbursts of antisocial behaviour and violence As early as 1943, murder was linked to hypoglycemia, while other studies have related assaults and fatal sexual offences to hyperglycemic reactions (including the “twinkie defence”) It has also been linked with a syndrome characterized by aggressive and assaultive behaviour Studies of jail and prison inmate populations have found a higher than normal level of hypoglycemia, as well as in groups of habitually violent and impulsive offenders

The Link Between Diet and School Performance  In a study of 803 New York City public schools, a researcher found that the academic performance of 1.1 mill schoolchildren rose 16% after their diets were modified  The number of “learning disabled” children found from 125,000 to 75,000 in one year o The over diagnosis of learning disabled o Diet may play a huge part in their ability to concentrate, learn etc.  No other chances in school programs for the learning disable were initiated that year  In a similar experiment conducted in a correctional institution, violent and nonviolent antisocial behaviour fell an average of 48% among 8047 prisoners after dietary changes were implemented  Proper diet is key to preforming socially accepted behaviour  Researchers have also evaluated the relationship between nutrition and intelligence o We not understand that IQ and intelligence is changeable and not fixed from the time you are born  These studies involved 1,753 children and young adults in the US, England, Wales, Scotland and Belgium  In each study, subjects who were poorly nourished and who were given dietary supplements showed a greater increase in IQ- an average of 16 points- than did those in the placebo group o Ethical issues  This was expanded to include more than 300 schoolchildren aged 6-14 in the US  In both studies, children who received daily supplements at school for three months achieved significantly higher gains in grade level compared to the matched control group taking placebos  The children taking a supplement improved academically at TWICE THE RATE of the control group  The researchers concluded that parents with a child who behaved badly, or does poorly in school, may benefit from having the child take a blood test to determine if concentrations of certain nutrients are below the reference norms

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There is evidence that 19 nutrients may be critical; low levels appear to adversely affect brain function, academic performance and conduct

Hormones  Experiments have shown that male animals are typically more aggressive than females  Male aggression is directly linked to male hormones o If aggressive male mouse is injected with female hormones, he will stop fighting o Likewise, the administration of male hormones to pregnant monkeys results in female offspring who, even three years after birth, are more aggressive than the daughters of non-injected mothers  Correlation between male hormones and aggression  There are a lot of studies on people that are trans, and have taken hormones (estrogen or testosterone) o Hormone blockers  David Reimer – in the 60s or 70’s blank slate theory was big, when he had his penis cut off accidentally, the doctor recommended that they should socialize him as a girl, and that gender would be determined by their socialization o He was given the name Brenda and was told he was a girl o At 13 he was told that he was born male o He knew that he was male but didn’t realize until his parents told him as a teen  There is some evidence that abnormal levels of male hormones in humans may prompt criminal behaviour o Often highly aggressive males o Did they produce more testosterone bc they are acting aggressively or did they become aggressive because of the excess of testosterone  Several investigators have found higher levels of testosterone in the blood of individuals who have committed violent offences  Steroids are known to accelerate violent behaviour in men  Some studies also relate premenstrual syndrome (PMS) to delinquency and conclude that women are at greater risk of aggressive and suicide behaviour before and during the menstrual period  After studying 156 newly admitted adult female prisoners, one researcher concluded that 49% of all their crimes were committed in the premenstrual period or during menstruation  Recently, feminists have challenged this association, concerned that there is a danger that all women will be affected by the recognition by the courts of PMS as a legitimate defense o Defining women by their biology o Hysteria is defined to be female o PMS can be considered as a mitigating factor o The burden of proof is very important and very high

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The danger is that society will revisit past understandings of women as being controlled by their biology not their rationality, and therefore inferior to men

 Genetics and Crime  Some scholars suggest that a penchant for crime might be inherited, and that criminal tendencies are genetically based  Early studies of this type focused on criminal families, or families that appeared to exhibit criminal tendencies through several generations  In 1877, Richard L. Dugdale published a study of one such clan- the Juke family  He traced the lineage back to a notorious character named Max, a Dutch immigrant who arrived in New York in the early 18 th century  Two of Max’s sons married into the notorious “Juke family of girls” six sisters, all of whom were said to be illegitimate o They were ALL illegitimate  mom may have been a sex worker, etc. o Socially stigmatized family o Not following the norms at the time  Max’s male descendants were reputed to be vicious, and the women had rather bad reputations  By the time of the study, Dugdale claimed to be able to identify approximately 1,200 descendants o This would have been a lot of work  He included among their number 7 murderers, 60 habitual thieves, 90 or so other criminals, 50 prostitutes, and 280 paupers o Pauper= poor people, were criminalized within society  Dugdale compared the crime-prone Jukes with another family, the pure-blooded progeny of Jonathan Edwards, a puritan preacher and one-time president of Princeton University  Descendants included American presidents and vice-presidents and many successful bankers and businesspeople- none had any identified run-ins with the law  Following in the tradition of family tree researchers, Henry H. Goddard published a study of the Kallikak family in 1912 o There was no control group in the other o There was also the difference of middle vs. lower class  He attempted to place the study the study of deviant families within an acceptable scientific framework by providing a kind of control group  For comparison purposes, he used two branches of the same family o One branch began as the result of a liaison between Martin Kallikak, a Revolutionary War soldier, and a bar maid whose name is unknown o As a result of this union, Martin Jr. was born o After the war, Martin Sr. returned home and married a righteous Quaker girl, and a second line of descent began o What they are interested in, is whether the bar maids family would become deviant

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Although the second, legitimate branch produced only a few minor deviants, the illuminate line results in 262 “feeble-minded” births and various other epileptic, alcoholic and criminal descendants The term “feeble minded” which was very much in style at the time of the study, today might be “mentally challenged” or “developmentally disabled” Because feeble-mindedness appeared to occur with some predictability, whereas criminal activity seemed to be only randomly represented, Goddard concluded that a tendency toward feeble-mindedness was inherited, but criminality was not

Chromosome and Modern-Day Criminal Families  In 1993, Dutch researchers caught worldwide attention with their claim that they had uncovered a specific gene with links to criminal behaviour after studying what media sources called the “the Netherlands’s most dysfunctional family”  Although the unarmed family displayed IQs in the near normal range, they seemed unable to control their impulses and often ended up being arrested for violations of the criminal law  Arrests, however, were always of men  Tracing the family back five generations, researchers found 14 men who were classified as genetically given to criminality o Gene mutation that was found in all the family members, but behaviour only manifested in males  None of the women in the family displayed criminal tendencies, although they were often victimized by their crime-prone siblings  One brother raped a sister and later stabbed a mental hospital staffer in the chest with a pitchfork; another tried to run over his supervisor with his car; two others repeatedly started fires, and were classified as arsonists; another frequently crept into his sister’s rooms and forced them to strip at knifepoint o Deviant behaviours exhibited o Lack of behavioural control  According to the researchers, because men have only one X chromosome, they are especially vulnerable to any defective gene o Men are XY o The mutation that they found was affecting the X chromosome, and because women are XX, they have a “backup system”  After a decade of study, which involved the laboratory filtering of a huge quantity of genetic material in search of a defective gene, the researchers announced they had isolated the specific mutation that caused the family’s criminality o Can they sterilize the women so that they cannot procreate and make extremely violent men, do they sex-select, etc? o If there is a certain gene that creates the certain behavior what do they do with the people that carry it Genetic Links  2014- results from a study done in Finland with 900 offenders revealed two genes associated with violent crimes

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those with the genes were 13 times more likely to have a history of repeated violent behaviour the authors started that at least 5-10% of violent crime in Finland could be attributed to individuals with these genotypes but they stressed that the genes could NOT be used to screen criminals because many more genes may be involved and environmental factors also contribute to violent behaviour Authors noted that even if an individual has a high-risk combination of these genes, the majority will never commit a crime o If you are...