Sociology Final Exam Review Sheet PDF

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Final exam study guide, Dr. McDonough, spring 2017...

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Sociology Final Exam Review Sheet Lecture 1: Intro to Sociology Sociological imagination (sociological perspective) – perspective from which one sees and understands the connections between individuals and the broader social contexts in which they live  How group life shapes individual behavior and beliefs; how individuals affect group life  How people are linked to social conditions  “Make the familiar strange” explaining large-scale complex phenomena o College leads to higher income  Education, social networking, credential society o OR something could be influencing both college and income:  Personality, upbringing, SES, social capital  Sociology focuses on the influences of social forces on human life; psychology studies individuals  Sociological imagination is the ability to: o See the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society o Discover the general in the specific o Make personal troubles public issues  Ex: suicide - As a personal trouble: main “cause” is mental illness from personal problems - As a public issue: relates suicide to the cohesiveness in society instead of just viewing it as an isolate act Three main perspectives in sociology: (difference between assumptions and arguments, applications) (how it approaches culture)

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Structural-functionalism – society is a set of interrelated parts o Macro level theory (looks at structure) o Cultural consensus exists and leads to social order o Natural state of society = balance and harmony

o Society is link an organism/complex machine: if one part breaks down, this leads to other parts breaking down and threatens the operation of the entire system o Social problems are disruptions of the societal system o Individuals are socialized by society’s institutions o Manifest functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social patter o Latent functions – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern; may contribute to stability o Social dysfunction – any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society  Criminal justice system - Manifest: maintain social control/order - Latent: creates jobs - Social dysfunction: police brutality 

Social conflict – social structure benefits those at the top, while hurting those at the bottom o Macro level theory o Society is marked by power struggles over scarce resources  Inequities result in conflict; social change is inevitable  Natural state of society is imbalance o Defines social problems as conditions that do not conform to the dominant ideology o People are inherently good but are corrupted by society and its economic structure o American Dream  Meritocracy: position in life is said to be a result of the effort you put in  Keeps people complacent

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Symbolic interactionism: human beings live in a world of symbols, to which we attach meanings. These meanings arise out of social interaction. Meanings are defined and redefined through the course of interaction. o Micro level theory o Focuses on how individuals act in relation to one another in everyday life o How individuals shape organization, share a view of the world, influence one another, and are socialized o Society is a network of interlocking statuses/roles  Social order is constructed through interaction as individuals, through shared meaning, make sense out of their social worlds o Definitions of deviance or social problems are subjective; based on how society reacts to what they do o Humans are interpretative and interactive

Lecture 5: Deviance  Social cohesion – the way people form social bonds, relate to each other, and get along on a day-to-day basis  Social cohesion is achieved in two main ways: o Mechanical solidarity – social cohesion based on the reliable similarity between members of a society  Unity is based on shared values and norms and similar functions of all members of society  Characteristic of pre-modern societies  Repressive law (punitive punishment) – offenders are likely to be severely punished for any action seen as an offense against the collective conscience  “eye for an eye”, death penalty, solitary confinement o Organic solidarity – social cohesion based on interdependence, because the members all perform different specialized functions  Society functions like a complex biological organism  Characteristic of modern societies  Restitutive law (rehabilitative punishment) – offenders are asked to comply with the law or to repay (make restitution) to those who have been harmed by their actions  fines, community service, rehab - While the US is a “modern society”, it is marked by both mechanical and organic forms of social control - The shift from mechanical to organic solidarity signifies a decline in the importance of the collective conscience, as well as a shift in the type of social control used to deal with deviance that may threaten the social order - A shift from repressive law to restitutive law generally signals this decline in the power of the collective conscience

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Stigma – the label attached to a particular behavior or status that is considered socially unacceptable or discrediting o Greatly changes a person’s self-concept and social identity o Operates as a master status o Based on behavior or visible cues o Stigma can remain after behavior has disappeared o Can cause secondary deviance

Structural-Functionalist approach to social deviance  Durkheim: o Collective conscience – the shared norms, beliefs, and values in a community  Revealed when people engage in deviant behavior o Social cohesion  Mechanical solidarity  Organic solidarity o When individuals engage in deviance, they offend the collective conscience o 4 functions of deviance:  Affirming cultural values and norms - Without clear social norms and values, anomie occurs - Anomie: a state of social strain, normative confusion, or rapid change in norms, when people’s behavior is no longer restrained by conventional norms  leads to increased suicide and crime rates  Clarifying moral boundaries  Promoting social unity  Encouraging social change  Robert K. Merton’s Strain Theory: o Strain can lead to deviant behavior/beliefs  Assumes consensus in terms of cultural goals, aspirations, expectations o Strain occurs when there is a disjunctions between culturally defined goals and structurally available opportunities (institutionalized means) o The rejections of cultural and/or the institutionalizes means to achieve those goals is considered deviant (non-conformist) o Conformity : accept the cultural goals and accept the institutionalized means to achieve those goals o Ritualism: reject the cultural goals but accept the institutionalized means to achieve those goals  Going through the motions while rejecting culturally-valued goals o Innovation: accept the cultural goals but reject the institutionalized means to achieve those goals  Socially unacceptable routes to success o Retreatism: reject the cultural goals and reject the institutionalized means to achieve those goals  Isolation and withdrawal when without access to the means of success and rejecting goals

o Rebellion: creation of new goals and adoption of new means of attaining them

Symbolic Interactionist approach to social deviance – LABELING THEORY  Main assumption: people are stigmatized by social labels, these labels become part of their identity o Once a labeled individual internalizes their label, they may seek out others who have been similarly labeled to find acceptance and avoid stigma o A person labeled a delinquent or criminal will associate with other delinquents/criminals, leading to more of the behavior  Deviance is the result of how others interpret a behavior; individuals who are labeled deviant often internalize this judgment as part of their self-identity  Erickson: “Deviance is not a property inherent in any particular kind of behavior; it is a property conferred upon that behavior”  The Effects of Deviant Labels o Stigma o Secondary deviance – deviant behavior that is a response to the negative consequences of labeling  Tannenbaum: punishment doesn’t always curb delinquent behavior o It can encourage deviant behavior through the process and effects of labeling o Delinquency (primary deviance)  labeling  association with older delinquents  identification as a true delinquent  more deviance/delinquency (secondary deviance)  In contrast to Strain Theory, this implies that crime could cause strain such as unemployment (rather than the other way around)  Looking glass self: the self-image an individual forms by imagining what others think of his or her behavior and appearance  Self-fulfilling prophecy : insofar as an individual internalizes this label and alters their self-concept to that of a criminal identity, the individual becomes more likely to continue to act out that label (i.e. engage in more criminal behavior)  The Mark of a Criminal Record o The primary dependent variable = the proportion of applications that elicited callbacks from employers o Hypothesis: the mark of a criminal record on a job application should decrease the number of callbacks from employers o Criminal record was a drug offense and prison time rather than a violent offense o Testers are assigned favorable work histories prior to incarceration

Social Conflict approach to social deviance  Main assumption: the social structure and institutions that make up society affect how we label and treat delinquent/criminal offenders o Rather than explaining criminal behavior in terms of socialization into attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors that deviate from some underlying

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cultural consensus, social conflict theories argue that the legal system is itself only reflective of the interests of those with power o Those without economic, political, and/or social power are more likely to be labeled and treated as criminals The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in an Age of Colorblindness Analysis of law and democracy can reveal the shortcomings of realizing democratic ideals I law and the power dimension of law o Voter ID laws o Felony disenfranchisement laws o Gerrymandering (prison-based)

Lecture 6: Stratification  Inequality – condition where people have unequal access to valued resources, services, and positions  Stratification – systematic inequalities between groups of people that arise as intended or unintended consequences of social processes and relationships o A stratification system is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy  Social mobility – movement from one stratum of a stratification system to another  Ideology – a system of beliefs that helps define and explain the world and justifies the existence of inequality  Class – a group of people that: o Share similar social and economic positions o Have similar opportunities in life o Have similar attitudes and lifestyles

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o Would benefit by the same kinds of government policies Socioeconomic status – composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality o Includes things like income, wealth, education, occupation, power, and prestige Income – money we get in the form of periodic payments and what most of use to subsist Wealth – broader than income; accumulated assets; able to be passed on through generations and can generate more wealth; wealth creates power

3 main elements of a stratification system  The unequal distribution of valued resources  Distinct groups that make up society’s strata (layers) o Ascribed status = CLOSED to social mobility o Achieved status = OPEN to social mobility  An ideology that explains and justifies inequality o Those in power produce and promote these ideas to maintain the stratification system, but others sometimes internalize them as well 5 main stratification systems  Estate system: politically-based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility o Rights and duties were assigned to certain groups (estates) – separates individuals and distributes power unequally  Caste system: religion-based system by no social mobility o Based on birth (ASCRIBED)  closed to social mobility o Sustained by cultural values, grows weaker as societies industrialized  Class system: economically-based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive, oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility o Open to social mobility o Both ascribed and achieved status  Status hierarchy system: social prestige-based o Prestige – the respect and admiration that a culture attaches to various social positions o People may try to assert or increase their status through things like “conspicuous consumption”  Elite-mass dichotomy: a system of stratification that has a governing elite – a few leaders who broadly hold the power of society 5 main trends in inequality, possible explanations  Computer revolution, technological advances, automation o Rewards highly educated o Divide between skilled and unskilled workers o Automates many jobs  Less manufacturing, more service producing

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Creation of more transient worker jobs, menial jobs, low wage jobs  fewer middle class jobs Movement of corporations to global work means outsourcing of many working class and lower middle class jobs Decline of labor unions

Davis-Moore Thesis (Structural Functionalist)  No society is classless or stratified  There is inequality or different rewards for different jobs in every society  There is a general consensus in society about which jobs are more desirable and prestigious  Certain jobs must be done in every society  Societies have limited resources  Stratification is functional: o Society must make certain that its positions are filled o Some positions are more important than others o The more important positions must be filled by the more qualified people o To motivate the more qualified people to fill these positions, society must offer them greater rewards o Because some workers are much less replaceable than others, rewards will be different Marx’s Conflict Theory of Stratification  Species being: the unique thing about being human is that we create our world o Every species in unique and defined by the way it exists as a biological organism  Alienation – isolation of the individual from cultural systems of meaning  Proletariat – workers  Bourgeoisie – owners  Labor theory of value – the value of a product is determined by the labor put into producing it o Relationship between the capitalists and proletariat is one of exploitation Conspicuous consumption – buying and using products because of the statement that make about social position  Status symbols

Lecture 7: Gender  Gender – socially constructed roles associated with each sex  Sex – males and females, with chromosomal, hormonal, anatomical, and physiological differences  Gender roles – society’s expectations of people’s behavior and attitudes based on whether they are females or males  Cisgender  Transgender – one’s biological sex does not match their internal gender identity  Third gender – socially and culturally recognized category of gender in addition ot man and woman Sex and gender as social constructs; sex verification in sports  When we see them as dichotomous and as essential to being masculine and feminine, sex is a social construct  Many gradations running from female to male  Caster Semenya – questions arose about her sex and she was forced to stop competing until extensive “gender testing” was finished o Misuse terms of sex and gender o Sex determination is complex o “private parts” do not alone constitute male or female  people are assigned to male or female irrespective of inconsistent or ambiguous evidence Major sources of gender differences  Biology  Culture

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Socialization Arguments of evolutionary psychology o In prehistoric societies, when human beings evolved, two major social roles existed:  Hunting or gathering food  Bearing and nursing children o Since women were the only ones who could perform role #2 and women were often pregnant, they were confined to the home o Males and female faces different evoluntary pressures and therefore have evolved different psychological mechanisms

More variation within gender groups than between them  Importance of context in terms of gender difference  5 areas where we see persistent gender differences 5 major issues in evaluating research on gender differences  Very small differences can be statistically significant o Exaggerated in media  False universalism o Ignored importance of context  The tyranny of averages  The revelations of within-group differences  Some differences are diminishing over time The relationship between testosterone and behavior (aggression)  No simple one-to-one relationship between testosterone and levels of aggression  Some studies have shown an association, but correlation does not equal causation Gender wage gap  5 main reasons: o Women and men enter the labor market with somewhat different amounts and kinds of human capital o Women and men are in different family situations at career entry due to gender differentiation in home o As a result of gender-role socialization and gender discrimination prior to labor market entry, women and men have different work and family aspirations o Upon entry into the labor market, women and men are allocated by employers to jobs with different wage rates o Different social networks of males vs females  3 types of discrimination that lead to the wage gap o Allocative discrimination – women are differentially located in occupations and establishments that pay lower wages

o Valuative discrimination – employers may set lower wages for female occupations o Within-job wage discrimination – women receive lower wages than men within a given occupation and establishment Lecture 8: Race and Ethnicity  Minority group – a group whose members: o Share distinct physical or cultural characteristics o Are denied access to power and resources available to other groups o Are accorded fewer rights, privileges, and opportunities  Race – a groups of people who share a set of characteristics – usually physical ones – and are said to share a common bloodline  Ethnicity – a shared common historical and cultural heritage and sense of group identity and belongingness  Prejudice – a set of negative attitudes, beliefs, and judgments about whole categories of people, and about individual members of those categories  Stereotype – exaggerated, simplified, and unreliable generalizations about people because of their membership in a particular groups (one sources of prejudice)  Discrimination – action often based on prejudice; denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of certain groups due to prejudice or some other arbitrary reason  Race ideology – imposed on conquered and enslaves people an identity as the lowest status groups in society along with myths attached to them such as being inferior in terms of morals, intelligence, behavior, and biology  Racialization – the formation of a new racial identity in which new ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed group of people Predictability of racism  Education o Less educated people are more prejudiced  Neighborhood o People living in urban areas are less prejudiced compared to those in rural areas Race as a social construct  Race is a social construct that changes over time and across different contexts; based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people o More meaningful on a social level than on a biological level  Genes do not correlate with conventional racial classifications o 95% of all genetic material is identical among individuals o of the remaining 5%, it is mainly individual differences, not group differences  No race theory o Biological variability exists but this variability does not conform to the discrete packages labeled races o So-called racial characteristics are not transmitted as complexes

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o Races do not exist because isolation of groups has ...