Study Guide for Exam 1 Chapter 1 to 10 Fall 2019 PDF

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Summaries/Review Notes/Collection Chapter 1 to 10 for Introductory Communication...

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Introductory Communication Chapter 1 Aristotle wrote Rhetoric – a systematic analysis of the art and practice of public speaking – in 4th century BCE (p. 13). Many of his ideas influence the study of public speaking even today. Cicero, a Roman politician, was a renowned orator and a prolific writer on rhetoric, the craft of public speaking. Another noteworthy Roman rhetorician, Quintilian, emphasized the ideal of an ethical orator──the good person speaking well.  Understand the linear model of public speaking and its components − Channel is the medium of delivery chosen by the source of communication for their messages. − Receiver is the source’s target of communication. − Source is a person with an idea or ideas to express, often referred to as his or her messages. − To decode means to try to make sense of communicated messages by firstly process the verbal and nonverbal symbols then finally formulate perceptions of the messages’ meaning. − To encode is to choose the way in which message should be delivered, either through verbal or non-verbal symbols. − Verbal symbols are the words that the sources use while non-verbal ones are his or her gestures, eye contact and facial expressions. − Noise (interferences) could be internal (within the sources or receivers themselves e.g. irrelevant thoughts, questions, and feelings) and external (engine noises during speeches, TVs, etc.) distractions that disrupt communication between sources and receivers. − Feedback are verbal (shouting, yelling, heckling, applauses) or non-verbal (nodding, staring, puzzled looks signaling concentration or confusion, etc.) responses during a public speaking transaction. For example, an audience member may lean forward to express interest or smile to show encouragement.  A transaction is a communicative exchange in which all participants continuously send and receive messages. In this case, sources and receivers can be interchangeable and the form of communication is not a one-way activity.  Although you are guaranteed the right to express your ideas freely, as a public speaker, you also have a responsibility to express your ideas ethically. Ethics refers to a group’s shared beliefs about what behaviors are correct or incorrect, right or wrong. It is a culturally relative factor of speech, meaning it may varies depending on where speeches are used. An ethical speaker not only need to focus on messages but also the audience and many correlated demographic factors such as their races, ethnicities, cultures, and dispositions to effectively understand who they are communicating to and how they should adapt their speeches accordingly. Chapter 2 

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According to Cicero, there are 5 key elements or classical canons of rhetoric to speech preparation, and they are 1. Invention is the generation of ideas for use in a speech, including both the speakers’ own thoughts on the topic and ideas from other sources. Talented speakers select the best ideas for a particular speech based on their analysis of

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their audience, their choice of topic and purpose, the search they conduct, and the evidence they gather. 2. Arrangement refers to the structuring of ideas to convey them effectively to audience, often referred to today as organization. Most speeches have 3 parts── introduction, body, and a conclusion──with the body serving as the core of the speech and containing the main points. An effective arrangement usually make the speech clear and memorable for the audience. 3. Style prefers to the choice of language that could best express the speakers’ message. Choosing an effective style could help speakers’ ideas more comprehensible, memorable and help speakers avoid bias. 4. Memory (preparation) is somewhat analogous to practice and refers to the work that the speakers do to remain in command of their material when they present a speech. It used to refer to remembering speeches by heart and creating mental stockpiles of words and phrases that speakers could inject into presentations where appropriate. In contemporary settings, speakers seldom recite speeches from memory and instead rely on notes to remind themselves of key ideas that they can delivery conversationally. 5. Delivery refers to the speaker’s use of his or her voice and body during the actual presentation of a speech. A strong delivery──one in which the speaker’s voice, hand gestures, eye contact, and movements are appropriate for the audience and settings──can make a powerful impression. 6. The audience analysis or audience research refers to the process of learning about audience’s interests and backgrounds in order to create a speech that meets their needs. Because the process is an important step the speakers must take before selecting their topic and choose the ideas they will use to develop that topic, it belongs to the Invention stage ─ the very first stage ─ of speech preparation. 7. Lowering or raising your voice during a speech belongs to the Delivery stage because it could be a tactic used during your speech to convey to audience appropriate feelings and positions through the expressiveness of your tone of voice. A clincher is a closing comment at the end of the speech that leaves a lasting impression of your speech in your listeners’ minds. It could be a comment, call to action that should be as compelling as the speech’s attention-getter and usually appears as the second element in a speech conclusion. To make your presentation memorable, select and word your clincher carefully. Basically, it should take about thirty seconds in a five to tenminute speech. There are several ways to craft great clinchers, including ▪ Tying your clincher to the introduction, which should be helpful if your introduction presented a compelling anecdote or example. The clincher should serve as a short message conveying valuable lessons or principles that made your anecdote important and meaningful to your audience. ▪ Highlight your thesis, which means you may want to use a few lines to reinforce the heart of your message. ▪ Ending with a striking sentence or phrases that could stay with your audience for a very long time. It is recommended that the phrase is relevant to your points. In the real world, it could serve as an effective logo or signature message, and the tactics involving it are often used in political campaign to make candidates more memorable.

Making an emotional message, which is also often used in political campaign to attract voters’ attention and emotional support, because this type of clincher often leaves a lasting impression in persuasive or commemorative speeches, perfect for capturing the audience’s hearts and support in general. • A transition is a type of organizing sentence that smoothly connects one idea or part of a speech to another. They are especially helpful in places such as (1) between the introduction and your first main points, (2) between each main points, and (3) between the final main point and the conclusion. • Extemporaneous speaking refers to how speakers use only notes for reference rather than reading their speech to the audience word-for-word. It requires a carefully crafted speaking outline instead of a full-on manuscript, and the outcome of presentation is smoothly and confidently delivered, nonetheless. Chapter 3 ▪

Ethical speech and legally protected speech are two different things, despite their tendency to overlap in certain cases. Specifically, ethical speech refers to incorporating ethical decision making into your public speaking process and into what you ultimately say, meaning you follow guidelines for telling the truth and avoid misleading an audience ──because such actions are ethical and the right thing to do. In contrast, legally protected speech refers to suing the law as your boundary for what you may say and how you say it. Thus, this approach involves either making decisions to tell the truth or withhold information based on whether there is a legal requirement to take a certain action or legal consequence for violating the rules. In other words, when you rely on legal guidelines, your speech is driven by what is technically within the legal rules, rendering the speech dependent on the bounds of what is lawful instead of ethics and create room for the possibility of it being unethical. • The most basic ethical guideline for pubic speaking is to tell audience the truth. That being said, the words truth and truthfully are fairly subjective and elude precise definition. It’s easier to describe truth in public speaking by examining what is not truth, which leads us to defining and detecting lies, half-truths and false inferences. False inferences are information presented in a way that lead to an audience to an incorrect conclusion ──an ethical breach. There are several types of false inferences, including selective or out-ofcontext evidences and omission of information. Half-truth is a statement that deceives an audience by stating only part of the truth and mixing it with a lie or lies. • Common knowledge is widely known information that are disseminated in many sources. For example, the Eiffel Tower is located in Paris, France. • Plagiarism refers to when one presents another person’s words or ideas as if they were their own, including paraphrasing without proper acknowledgement, and it is an unethical act that is never acceptable. When you plagiarize, you are not only stealing the ideas or words of another person, but also mislead your audience by misrepresenting the source of the material you’ve used (p. 78). It is especially tempting for students who research their resources online due to the loosely controlled nature of the environment. There could also be unintentionally plagiarism, where the students didn’t realize they were plagiarizing by not including proper citations or sources through honest mistakes. Chapter 4 •

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It’s crucial for both sources (speakers) and receivers (listeners) to understand the listening process and strive to become skillful listeners. To do this, we must first examine the most

basic distinction between hearing and listening. Hearing means merely receiving messages in a passive way while listening, on the other hand, means actively paying attention to what you’re hearing; it involves both processing and imposing meanings onto heard information (decoding) and deciding to retain what you’ve heard and understood (retention). Cognitive scientists consider listening to be a conscious mental process that includes the 3 components: (1) Selection, which refers to listeners’ attention and perception; (2) Organization, which refers to listeners’ interpretation; (3) Integration, which means storage recall. For communication researchers, however, they describe listening as a process consisting of (1) sensing, (2) interpreting, (3) evaluating and (4) responding. Both groups agree that hearing is a passive activity while listening is not. • Listeners tend to pay the most attention just after the beginning of the speech and just before the end. While giving your speech, internal noises or internal distraction may be a big factor that hinders your performance. They are any thoughts that make it harder for you to concentrate, such as worrying about how well you’re doing in class or pondering aspects of your personal life. • Argumentative listeners are the ones who may harbor conflict of interest with the individuals they are listening to. These listeners practice selective listening, meaning to only listen to as much as they needed in order to fuel their own arguments. Argumentative listening could also be coming from speakers who may feel personally attacked by audience members during question-and-answer sessions. Because these speakers focus more on their irritation than the actual question, they may listen to only part of what a questioner has asked and so can’t respond in a thoughtful, informed way. In doing so, they hurt their credibility. The best way to avoid this type of listening is to listen to sources until the end without interruptions or early judgements, equip yourself (listeners) with an open mind, and think about addressing potential disagreements throughout your speech in a respectful manner (speakers). Chapter 5 Demographics is a term originated from the world of public relation and marketing that refers to certain characteristics of your listeners, including • Age, which refers to audience’s age groups that could greatly help speakers in determining crucial ideas to present; • Gender composition, which refers to the male-female dynamics (mixed, unevenly distributed, single gender, etc.) and is important to speakers’ determination of ideas’ ability resonate with the audience; • Sexual orientation, which include men, women and the different definitions provided by the LGBTQ community; • Race refers to common heritage based on genetically share physical characteristics of people in a group, which can affect how listeners respond to a speaker’s message, ethnicity refers to cultural background that is usually associated with shared religion, national origin, and language, all are important aspects to consider due to its shaping of beliefs, attitudes and values of audience members; • Religious orientation refers to a person’s set of religious beliefs, which can influence how a person may respond to their speakers or listeners. • Socioeconomic background is another sub-category of demographics which refers to where individuals stand in relation to other people in terms of financial resources (wealthy, middle-class, impoverished, etc.), education (academic experiences and

exposure), and occupation. Taking into account these factors could help speakers determine the ultimate concerns of listeners and how to tailor their messages. • Political affiliation refers to a person’s political beliefs and positions. It’s also the most difficult demographic characteristics to pin down. Traditional labels like liberal or conservative and Republican or Democrat elude specific meaning and are too broad as to be relatively useless in predicting a person’s views on every issue. It is usually noteworthy when your speech has the potential to engage highly polarized political attention and opinions. By assessing these factors, speakers will be able to better anticipate audience’s beliefs about topic, their willingness to listen to the message and tailor themselves and their speeches more effectively by choosing the style and delivery formats that are sensible to those factors. • One of the ways to analyze the audience is to look for common ground, which refers to the beliefs, values, and experiences that speakers and audience both share. Common grounds may be communicated non-verbally through various expressions, including choice of clothing, confirmation of shared values and senses of identities, etc. • To assess listeners’ dispositions is to analyze their likely attitude toward messages. Gauging your listeners’ dispositions can help you figure out how to craft your speech. In most situations, audiences can be divided into three groups: sympathetic (mostly or all agree with message), hostile (mostly or all disagree with message), and neutral (neither harbor negative or positive feelings, could be apathetic or lack strong feelings about topic). You’d want a neutral audience most because, with a carefully planned presentation, they have the highest chance of tipping toward supporting your message. That being said, they may also be inclined to oppose it if your delivery is poorly prepared. Chapter 6 •

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A thesis statement is a single sentence that conveys the topic and purpose of a speech─ ─the bottom line. It all sums up your speech’s main message and reflect your narrowed topic and rhetoric purpose. All the different parts of a speech, such as the main points and subpoints, should tie into the thesis statement. It is also sometimes referred to as the central idea or topic statement. A good thesis statement helps listeners remember the essence of your speech, and it is often expressed as (1) a one sentence line that (2) effectively addresses the speakers’ intentions and (3) maintains consistency with speakers’ ultimate purposes. Your intended effect on the audience constitute your rhetoric purpose. There are a variety of rhetoric purposes, including o Persuasive speech, which refers to when your speech’s purpose is to be persuasive. You seek to convince audience members to consider or adopt a new position, strengthen an existing belief, or take a particular action. For instance, you may try to persuade more people into condemning the teenage drag-queen movement, in which teenagers or even younger boys are encouraged to wear make-ups and dance sexually as adult entertainers to adult spectators. o Informative speech refers to when your core objective is to inform your audience of something. The message is educational, and your goal is to increase the audience’s understanding or awareness of your subject. For example, you may want to inform your audience of the college registration process, so your speech should include information about how to register, what to do after registration, and what consequences may occur in the case of late registration. Remember that you do not

include your own personal opinions and feelings toward the registration process such as how you dislike the deadline or how you want to registration webpage to improve. o Entertaining speech refers to speeches that should be inspiring and entertaining, usually accompanied by an adequate amount of humor and positivity to energize the crowds. Special occasions such as weddings could also be defined in this category, where you may seek to honor the occasion by creating entertaining and emotionally positive experiences for attendants. In other cases, such as a roasting session, meaning to humor the audience with humorous remarks about certain subjects, you may want to inject lots of types of humor and display a playful or serious-not-so-serious attitude to be more entertaining. With these cases, you may want to be mindful of your audience, make sure you know them well before attempting certain types of humor, especially sarcasm and dark humor. • Brainstorming one of the topic selection strategies which refers to when you list every idea that comes to your mind without evaluating their merits. Your goal is to develop a sizable list of topics quickly; later, you will consider which one would be best. Do not censor any idea at this point in just and just let your thoughts flow. To effectively engage in brainstorming, try directing yourself toward your favorites in categories of your interests and experiences, such as the issues you care about, the organizations you affiliate with, people you admire, events you find meaningful, places you have been and lessons about life you have found important. • Differs from brainstorming, with mind mapping, you want to write down a word or phrase in the middle of a large piece of blank paper, and then surround it with words and images representing other ideas that come to mind. It could act as an effective visual aid that requires lots of integration between colors, arrows, words, sketches and or formation of branches from words to words or visuals to visuals to convey main points. The biggest difference between mind mapping and brainstorming is, unlike brainstorming, mind mapping relies on meaningful connection and evaluated perceptions of things to make sense. You need careful consideration of every idea before connecting them to form a meaningful map of ideas that have proper pathways and comprehensible patterns. Chapter 7 •

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Research is the process of gathering information from libraries, internet and interviews to increase speakers’ credibility and understanding of the topic. Research is essential to the public speaking process because it helps (1) speakers gain a broader understanding of their topics by mostly requiring their undivided attention to narrowed and specific points that support their topics; (2) gain the listeners’ agreement through enabling researchers the ability to gather evidences from credible sources, which show speakers’ preparedness and enhance their credibility; (3) demonstrating college-l...