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I/O PsychologyCHAPTER 1: Introduction to I/O PsychologyIndustrial/organizational psychology is abranch of psychology that applies the principles ofpsychology to the workplace.“To enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and kno...

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I/O Psychology CHAPTER 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology Industrial/organizational psychology is a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace. “To enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior” (Rucci, 2008).

Principles of learning are used to develop training programs and incentive plans, principles of social psychology are used to form work groups and understand employee conflict, and principles of motivation and emotion are used to motivate and satisfy employees.

Major Fields of I/O Psychology The industrial approach focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through training. The organizational approach creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well, give them with the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work environment.

Personnel psychology, deals with analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance. Organizational psychology is concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization. Human Factors/Ergonomics concentrate on workplace design, human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress.

Brief History of I/O Psychology In 1903, Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory of Advertising, in which psychology was first applied to business. In 1911, he published Increasing Human Efficiency in Business.

1913, Hugo Munsterberg publishes Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (German version published in 1910). The term “industrial psychology” was seldom used prior to World War I. Instead, the common terms for the field were “economic psychology,” “business psychology,” and “employment psychology” (Koppes & Pickren, 2007).

1917, Journal of Applied Psychology first published 1918, World War I provides I/O psychologists with the first opportunity for large-scale employee testing and selection. (Army Alpha, for literate & Army Beta, for those who can’t read) John Watson, who is better known as a pioneer in behaviorism, served as a major in the U.S. Army in World War I and developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots. Henry Gantt, were responsible for increasing the efficiency with which cargo ships were built, repaired, and loaded Thomas A. Edison created a 150-item knowledge test that he administered to over 900 applicants. only 5% of the applicants passed. Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth, one of the pioneer scientists to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers.

1921, First Ph.D. in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech 1932, First I/O text written by Morris Viteles

1933, Hawthorne studies were published, conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the Chicago area, demonstrated that the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees played a tremendous role in employee behavior. It was initially designed to investigate such issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee performance. Employees changed their behavior and became more productive because they were being studied and received attention from their managers (Hawthorne effect.) 1937, American established

Association

for

Applied

Psychology

1945, Society for Industrial and Business Psychology established as Division 14 of APA with 130 members 1951, Marion Bills elected as first woman president of Division 14

1960, Division 14 renamed as Society for Industrial Psychology, membership exceeds 700

1971, B.F. Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and Dignity

2. Literature Reviews a) Journals consist of articles written by researchers directly reporting the results of a study. b) Bridge publications are usually written by professors about a topic of interest to practitioners, but they are not as formal or statistically complex as articles in journals. c) Trade magazines contain articles usually written by professional writers who have developed expertise in a given field.

1980, Division 14 membership exceeds 1,800

3.

1963, Equal Pay Act passed 1964, Civil Rights Act passed. First issue of The IndustrialOrganizational Psychologist (TIP) published 1970, Division 14 membership exceeds 1,100

1982, Division 14 renamed Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP)

Psychologists require that subjects participate in studies of their own free will—a concept called informed consent.

1986, Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) holds first annual national conference separate from APA meeting 1989, Supreme Court sets conservative trend and becomes more “employer friendly” 1990, Americans with Disabilities membership exceeds 2,500

Act passed.

SIOP

1991, Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to overcome 1989 conservative Supreme Court decisions 1997, SIOP celebrates golden anniversary at its annual conference in St. Louis 2000, SIOP membership exceeds 3,600 2005, OFCCP and EEOC become more aggressive in fighting systemic discrimination

Research in I/O Psychology Why Conduct Research? 1. 2.

Answering Questions and Making Decisions Research and Everyday Life. Understanding research helps you to critically listen and analyze results of these studies to make more intelligent decisions.

3.

Common Sense Is Often Wrong

Considerations in Conducting Research 1. Ideas, Hypothesis, Theories a) Idea (What to research) b) Hypothesis (Prediction) c) Theory (Previous research/logic)

The Location of the Study a) Laboratory Research. low external validity, or generalizability b) Field Research. Low on internal validity.

4.

The Research Method to Be Used a) Experiments. cause-and-effect relationships. Two characteristics define an experiment: (1) Manipulation of one or more independent variables and (2) Random Assignment of subjects to experimental and control conditions. In an experiment, the researcher intentionally manipulates one or more aspects of the question of interest, called the independent variable, and measures the changes that occur as a result of that manipulation, called the dependent variable. Those who received training are called experimental group, and those who did not collectively called the control group.

b) Quasi-experiments. Often used to evaluate the results of a new program implemented by an organization. No random assignment. c) Archival Research. Involves using previously collected data or records to answer a research question. d) Surveys. Ask people their opinion on some topic. e) Meta-analysis is a statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research. A meta- analysis results in one number, called the mean effect size, which indicates the effectiveness of some variable. Correlation coefficients (r) are used for relationship between two variables. A difference score (d) is used for difference between two groups.

Subject Samples a) random sample b) convenience sample

5.

Random assignment is important when using convenience samples, as research indicates that random and nonrandom assignment result in different outcomes (Shadish & Ragsdale, 1996).

6.

7.

Running the Study. To ensure that data are collected in an unbiased fashion, it is important that all instructions to the subjects be stated in a standardized fashion and at a level that is understandable. a) Debrief. Be told the purpose of the experiment and be given a chance to ask questions about her participation. Statistical Analysis. After all data have been collected, the results are statistically analyzed. a) Intervening variable. A hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between other variables.

Ethics in Industrial/Organizational Psychology Ethical dilemmas are ambiguous situations that require a personal judgment of what is right or wrong because there are no rules, policies, or laws guiding such decisions. Individuals often rely on their morals and personal values, which often leads to different decisions by different people in similar situations. In life, we often encounter two types of ethical dilemmas: Type A and Type B. In a Type A dilemma, there is a high level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no best solution, and there are both positive and negative consequences to a decision. In a Type B dilemma, also called rationalizing dilemmas. Usually, individuals know what is right but choose the solution that is most advantageous to them.

CHAPTER 2: Job Analysis and Evaluation Job Analysis Job Analysis—gathering, analyzing, and structuring information about a job’s components, characteristics, and requirements (Sanchez & Levine, 2000).

Importance of Job Analysis 1. Writing Job Descriptions. A brief, two- to fivepage summary of the tasks and job requirements found in the job analysis. In other words, the job analysis is the process of determining the work activities and requirements, and the job description is the written result of the job analysis.

2. Employee Selection. By identifying requirements, it is possible to select tests or develop interview questions that will determine whether a particular applicant possesses the requirements of the job. 3. Training. Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be systematically used to create training programs. 4. Personpower Planning. One important but seldom employed use of job analysis is to determine worker mobility within an organization. Peter Principle: promoting employees until they eventually reach their highest level of incompetence

5. Performance Appraisal 6. Job Classification. Job analysis enables a human resources professional to classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. Job classification is useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions.

7. Job Evaluation Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job. 8. Job Design. Can be used to determine the optimal way in which a job should be performed. 9. Compliance with Legal Guidelines. Any employment decision must be based on job related information.

10. Organizational Analysis. During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of certain problems within an organization. For example, during a job analysis interview, an employee may indicate that she does not know how she is evaluated or to whom she is supposed to report. The discovery of such lapses in organizational communication can then be used to correct problems and help an organization function better.

Writing a Good Job Description 1.

Job Title. If the job title indicates the true nature of the job, potential applicants for a position will be better able to determine whether their skills and experience match those required for the job.

2.

Brief Summary. The summary need be only a paragraph in length but should briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job.

3.

Work Activities. Lists the tasks and activities in which the worker is involved.

4.

Tools and Equipment Used. Lists all the tools and equipment used to perform the work activities in the previous section.

5.

Job Context. Describes the environment in which the employee works and should mention stress level, work schedule, physical demands, level of responsibility, temperature, number of co-workers, degree of danger, and any other relevant information.

6.

Work Performance. Contains a relatively brief description of how an employee’s performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected of the employee.

7.

8.

Compensation Information. This section of the job description should contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and the compensable factors used to determine salary. Job Competencies. This section contains what are commonly called job specifications or competencies. These are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that are necessary to be successful on the job.

Preparing for a Job Analysis Who Will Conduct the Analysis? Typically, a job analysis is conducted by a trained individual in the human resources department, but it can also be conducted by job incumbents, supervisors, or outside consultants. How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? The typical answer is that a job description should be updated if a job changes significantly. An interesting reason that job descriptions change across time is job crafting –the informal changes that employees make in their jobs (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001).

Which Employees Should Participate? In a committee-based job analysis, a group of subject matter experts (e.g., employees, supervisors) meet to generate the tasks performed, the conditions under which they are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform them. In a field-based job analysis, the job analyst individually interviews/observes a number of incumbents out in the field. Which particular employees will participate? It may be determined through:  Job Competence.  Race.  Gender.  Education Level.  Personality.  Viewpoint.

What Types of Information Should Be Obtained? Concerns the level of specificity, should the job analysis break a job down into very minute, specific behaviors, or should the job be analyzed at a more general level? Is it a formal or an informal requirement? Formal requirements for a secretary might include typing letters or filing memos. Informal requirements might involve making coffee or picking up the boss’s children from school.

Conducting a Job Analysis

Using Other Job Analysis Methods

Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed To identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed.  Gathering Existing Information.  Interviewing Subject Matter Experts. (People who are knowledgeable about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and upper-level management.)  Observing Incumbents. (The job analyst observes incumbents performing their jobs in the work setting.)  Job Participation.

General Information about Worker Activities

Step 2: Write Task Statements Will be used in the task inventory and included in the job description. A properly written task statement must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is done). Often, task statements will also include such components as where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is done.

Step 3: Rate Task Statements Conduct a task analysis—using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being performed. Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs. Identify the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks.  Knowledge is a body of information needed to perform a task.  A Skill is the proficiency to perform a learned task.  Ability is a basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring knowledge, or developing a skill.  Other characteristics include such personal factors as personality, willingness, interest, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience. Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs Will be used to select new employees and include such methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers.

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a structured instrument developed at Purdue University by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972). The PAQ contains 194 items organized into six main dimensions: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and other jobrelated variables such as work schedule, pay, and responsibility. Job Structure Profile (JSP). A revised version of the PAQ was developed by Patrick and Moore (1985). The major changes in the revision include item content and style, new items to increase the discriminatory power of the intellectual and decision-making dimensions, and an emphasis on having a job analyst, rather than the incumbent. Job Elements Inventory (JEI). Another instrument designed as an alternative to the PAQ, developed by Cornelius and Hakel (1978). The JEI contains 153 items and has a readability level appropriate for an employee with only a tenth-grade education Functional Job Analysis (FJA) was designed by Fine (1955) as a quick method that could be used by the federal government to analyze and compare thousands of jobs.

Information about Tools and Equipment Job Components Inventory. Developed by Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr (1983) used in England. It consists of more than 400 questions covering five major categories: tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision making and responsibility. It is the only job analysis method containing a detailed section on tools and equipment.

Information about Competencies Occupational Information Network (O*NET). Is a national job analysis system created by the federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) which had been in use since the 1930s. O*NET is a major advancement in understanding the nature of work, in large part because its developers understood that jobs can be viewed at four levels: economic, organizational, occupational, and individual.

Critical Incident Technique (CIT). Was developed and first used by John Flanagan and his students at the University of Pittsburgh, it wass used to discover actual incidents of job behavior that make the difference between a job’s successful or unsuccessful performance.

Determining External Pay Equity With external pay equity, the worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market (other organizations). External equity is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees.

Job Evaluation Job Evaluation —process of determining a job’s worth. It is typically done in two stages: determining internal pay equity and determining external pay equity. Determining Internal Pay Equity Internal pay equity, involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly.

To determine external equity, organizations use salary surveys. Sent to other organizations, these surveys ask how much an organization pays its employees in various positions. The amount of money a job is worth is called direct compensation.

CHAPTER 3: Legal Issues in Employee Selection The Legal Process

Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors The first step in evaluating a job is to decide what factors differentiate the relative worth of jobs. Possible compensable job factors include:      

Level of responsibility Physical demands Mental demands Education requirements Training and experience requirements Working conditions

Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compens...