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Marc WilsonWhat is psychology?Psychology is the scientific investigation of the mental processes and behavior of an individual.Willheim Wundt: The father of psychology, established the first Institute for experimental psychology in Germany 1879.William James: Founder of functionalismB Skinner Known ...

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PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

Marc Wilson What is psychology? Psychology is the scientific investigation of the mental processes and behavior of an individual. Willheim Wundt: The father of psychology, established the first Institute for experimental psychology in Germany 1879. William James: Founder of functionalism B.F Skinner Known for the establishment of operant conditioning theory – the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, whether it’s positive or negative, makes it more or less likely to occur again. Philip Zambardo: Known for the stanford prison experiment which investigated the effect that prisons have on behavior, whether people conform to social roles Stanley Milgram: Known for his 1963 study of obedience, he found that people will oppose what is morally right to appease an authoritative figure. Electric shock investigation. There were 5 main factors which influenced obedience: - Immediacy / proximity of the victim - Authority of the experimenter - Peer pressure - Cross cultural difference - Gender Sigmund freud: Founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school of thought emphasized the effect of the unconscious mind on behavior. Personality is formed through the conflict of three structures: ID, ego and super ego. Carl rogers: Humanism, he is known for this psychotherapy method known as client-centered therapy. Abraham Maslow: Known for the hierarchy of needs, and the self-actualization theory – which represents growth of an individual towards the fulfillment of the highest needs.

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES: Solomon Asch: Carried out the study of conformity, this study aimed to determine the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could influence a person to conform. Philosophy is the parent of psychology. Pythagoras: believes that physical appearance (face specifically) is a window on the psyche. Galen: personality results form the balance of four humors ‘fluids) Blood - sanguine Black Bile - melancholic Yellow Bile - choleric Phlegm – phlegmatic Descartes: the body is a machine – 2 realms, body and soul Lavater 18th Century AD - Physiognomy: a person face or facial characteristics regarded as indicative of a person’s personality or ethnic origin. Sanguine – cheerful Melancholic – unhappy Choleric – bad tempered Phlegmatic – calm Sheldon 12AD: Constitutional psychology: the understanding that body type is indicative of an individuals characteristics of personality. Endomorph larger build, pear shape

Mesomorph Athletic build, Tortilla shape

Ectomorph thin, skinnier build

Personality characteristics: lazy, slow, complacent

Personality characteristics: Competitive, energetic

Personality characteristics: Self-conscientious, restrained

Big Five: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, neuroticism, extraversion and agreeableness.

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

Phineas Gage: Railroad incident, damaged frontal lobe and changed his personality. Locke (12th Century): Wild boy of Averyon Tabula rasa (blank slate) Francis Galton: inheritability of intellect, that intelligence is inherited. Pygmalion effect: high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area Golem effect: lower expectations placed upon individuals lead to poor performance by the individuals Hawthorne effect: tendency for people to change their behavior because of the knowledge they are in an experiment Albert Bandura: Bobo doll study – the study of aggression. It demonstrated that children are able to learn through observation of adult behavior. Psychology ethics: Four COMMON bioethical principles: Respect for Autonomy - Allowing patients.to be able to make their own decisions about with healthcare they will or will not receive. Justice - Share the benefits of the study with the world to help the world & all those who inhabit it

Beneficence - Always seek to do good

Non Beneficence - Do no harm

Maori bioethical principles: • http://www.rangahau.co.nz/research-idea/27/ Whanaungatanga Manaakitanga Aroha Mahaki Mana Titiro, Whakarongo, korero Kia Tupato He kanohi kitea Theory v hypothesis: Theory: a theory is a tested, substantiated explanation for a set of verified factors. Hypothesis: suggestion explanation for an observable phenomenon Correlational study:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES: Investigates whether two or more variables are associated using predictor variables Experimental study: Uses the manipulation of an independent variable to observe an effect of a dependent variable, the environment is controlled so that the extraneous variables can be eliminated Dependent variable: being measured or tested Independent: characteristic of an experiment that is manipulated or changed Predictor: a variable that predicts another variable Writing correlational value: r(198)=.24 p=.001 Norman Triplett 1897: the first psychological experiment This study was carried out to see if an individual’s performance is facilitated by the presence of others (social facilitation), winding a fishing rod, he found that children did wind faster in the presence of others. Social facilitation has a positive influence on the performance on an individual. Sherif (1935) The study of the auto kinetic effect in an unambiguous situation – light moving along a wall. This study indirectly influenced Milgram’s obedience and Asch’s conformity study. When participants were tested in a group he found participants converged their estimated to be similar to the views of the other two members of the group. Asch (1951, 1956) Completed a study of conformity using lines and confederates. Why do people conform? Normative influence: conformity due to the desire to be liked (assume to disagree will mean that you will not be liked). Informational influence: conformity due to wanting to gain knowledge because they believe someone else to academically ‘right.’ Increasing the interdependence will also increase conformity, for instance, stating a reward will be given to the group for a unanimous response. Conversion: conformity primarily because of the belief that others are right, completely changing their own opinion. Compliance: conforming primarily because of the concern of how they will be seen but will privately disagree. Independence Where you are previously challenging the position and do not change the stance you already hold.

Anti-conformity An individual consciously and deliberately challenges the position or actions of the group, motivated by rebellious

Thoroughly learn the Milgram experiment Social facilitation: is an improvement in the performance of an individual to do easy/well learned tasks due to the presence of others, and a deterioration in the ability to perform difficult tasks in the presence of others.

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

Ringelmann (1913) Carried out an experiment using a rope where participants had to pull a rope as hard as they can. He found that participants exerted less force when pulling as a group than individually. Known as the Ringelmann effect. -

Potential explanations include: Co – ordination loss, tendency to not pull the same way or aligned with the other people, meaning potential isn’t fulfilled. Motivation loss, as group size increases participants became less motivated to try as hard, thus potential isn’t fulfilled.

Latane et al., social loafing: Social loafing is when an individual’s efficiency of a performance decreases as group size increases compared to working individually. Latane and Darley Bystander Intervention: a lone bystander is more likely to give aid than any of several bystanders, They found that friends were known to help a greater percentage of the time. They concluded that the presence of others inhibits people’s response in an emergency, more people = slower response.

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Factors that contribute to the bystander effect Diffusion of responsibility – presence of others provides an opportunity to swiftly transfer responsibility to act to anyone else Audience inhibition – ‘fear of social blunders’ don’t want to act for fear of what others will think, e.g being too dramatic, the situation isn’t as serious as it sounds Social influence – if no one else is concerned or acting, then it is less likely the individual will be prone to act Strangers v friends – it is less likely someone will act if they are a stranger, no emotional connection or innate desire to help

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

John Mclure Achievement motive nAch: the need to accomplish something difficult; overcome obstacles and attain a high standard. People who have high nAch are not high-risk takers. Motive to avoid failure: Symptoms: - leads to anxiety - fear of mistakes and/or taking risks Motive to avoid success: ‘tall poppy syndrome,’ avoid success for fear of being successful comparatively to other people. Downsides to success: Being successful can also lead to the loss of familiarity or loss of anonymity. Intrinsic motivation Our own desires motivate us

Extrinsic motivation External demands influence our motivation, such as a reward or pay.

Perfectionism: Symptoms: - set over high standards - evaluate performance critically - high fear of failure - negative thoughts; obsessive and compulsive Self-regulation breakdowns: 1. Rumination: This involves running over events continuously, can’t stop thinking about it and try counteracting this thought pattern by activity. 2. Obsession The thought becomes intrusive and recurring 3. Poor action control Inability to start and inability to stop 4. Procrastination Avoid and put off until the last minute Strategies: Ones that DON’T work Suppression: ignoring the issue worsens the issue as it creates a rebound effect //

Ones that Do work Hierarchy of actions: goals to action, translating a major goal in practical subgoals Implementation intentions: understand WHAT is required to reach these goals and HOW you plan to get there, as well as having back up plans because no road to success isn’t without complications

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

(Kuhl & Beckham) Action orientation: focus on the task or action at hand State orientation: focus on internal state, think about result not action. Symptoms: - Hesitation - Poor self definition - Unrealistic plans Consequences: failure to live in the present, rumination, focus ONLY on long term goals, hard to make quick decisions due to over thinking about long term consequences Benefits: strategy application in sport, simulate and anticipation of games Dynamics of Willpower: How do people resist temptation? Delay of gratification kids waiting for marshmellow, babies waiting for food

How to generate willpower: 1. Obscure the stimulus (hide the temptation) 2. Generate a distraction 3. Reconstruct the stimulus (so that it is no longer tempting)

From helplessness to hope 1. The learning theory, Seligman 1967, Carried out an investigation using rats, with shocks that were escapable or inescapable, after feeling like the rat cannot escape, they do not move, they are helpless. 2. The cognitive version Thoughts shape emotions (Weiner) and events can be explained by attributions Attributions Ability Effort

Success Pride Contentment

Failure Depression Shame

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES: If you attribute negative events to causes that are stable, internal or global then depression will increase, therefore it is better to attribute negative events to changeable causes, for instance effort rather than intelligence. Contextual applications: School: Students that attribute their failure to their ability, tended to give up Comparatively, students who attributed their failure to changeable causes like effort, tended to persist. Students who were praised for their intelligence were also found to be less motivated Fatalism about earthquakes: people attribute the damage of an earthquake to the earth rather than the building, however damage needs to be attributed to the building not the earthquake. Uncontrollable factors that increase depression: Multiple similar negative events occur, especially within a small-time frame. 5 strategies to go from helplessness to hope: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Think of alternatives Make effective plans (specific) Counter negative expectancies, have high hopes, or realistic hopes Have future incentives which help motivation Build purpose and meaning

1. Higgens – Self discrepancy Actual self: who we actually are Ideal self: who we want/would like to be Ought self: who we believe we have to be Actual/Ideal self-discrepancy: can lead to anxiety, depression, less life satisfaction Actual/ought self-discrepancy: anxiety and in some cases, bulimia. 2. Hazel Markus - Possible selves Possible selves are concepts for who we want to be in the future. Hoped for – who you want to become Feared – who you’re afraid of becoming 3. Maslow – Self actualization Humanists aim at this self actualization, the idea that an individual needs to recognize full potential or growth to improve self esteem Positive Self directedness

Negative Self-preoccupation (vanity) Individuals can become a narcissist, self absorbed

1. Csiks – Flow Flow is the mental state of being in a mental state of operation in which the person is fully focused and performing their optimum level with high enjoyment and concentration. High skill & High challenge

High skill & low challenge

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES: FLOW Low skill & High challenge FRUSTRATION/ANXIETY

BOREDOM Low skill & low challenge APATHY

Taciano Milfont Psychological processes are shaped by experiences - Experiences are central to the development of psychological tendencies Universal and culturally variable psychologies - Distinction between the thoughts feelings and actions we have as universal or not, whether it is a global behavior or not General psychology: all of human psychology is universally experienced in similar way – it is like a computer operating independently of context and content Cross cultural psychology: mind is shaped by its experiences, and cultures differ in the kinds of experiences they provide Kissing scenario, spouses & mother scenario

Human rights and Indigenous Issues: Everything we do is linked to culture, how we act, dress, worship, feel, act and behave. Importance for culture in human evolution: To survive in diverse habitats, people would have had to pass down culturally transmitted know how, such as skills, techniques and technology that is necessary to survive. Humans are an ultra-cultural species, we live in a governed world with rules and norms we need to acquire Culture refers to the shared rules that govern behavior WHAT IS CULTURE: Hazel Markus, the four I’s The culture cycle. I’s – thoughts feelings and behaviors Interactions – with people, norms artifcats Instituions – governments, schools and science Ideas – what is good, moral, self views

A human universal is the need for cultural input. We are culturally shaped shapers

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

Assumptions to challenge: “Culture is not you not me.” I have my own way of doing things, interacting, institutions ideas as well as others “Culture is stereotypes.” E.g time analogy, change into social types so that you can stop and understand why people behave the way they do “Culture is consistent, coherent, stable” – culture evolves, it is not stable, interactions can progress and grow Most people are not WEIRD W-western E- educated I-industrialized R-rich D-democratic societies This means that findings can not be applicable globally due to the population that data was collected from Universal human rights: Each one of us no matter where we are, havie rights that are universal It is difficult to enforce or punish those who break these rights, as this is a declaration not set law Indigenous and liberation psychology: SIBLEY 2010 Theory of ideologies in post colonial nations

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES: Indigenous peoples have experienced objective historical injustice: - Creating an ideology of historical recognition of negation - This means they are either relevant or irrelevant in todays society, irrelevant for the future of our country - OR recognition of these injustices is important for todays society and will benefit the future Indigenous people have a claim of undeniable nationality: - Creates an ideology of symbolic projection or exclusion - This means that either indigenous culture is relevant/irrelevant in representation of modern national identity - You can accept the fact they were the first peoples, and is integral for todays national identity, and the development of our countries future national identity and is integral for multicultural - OR you can accept this but is irrelevant for national identity today and for our future national identity This is applicable for other contexts. Dark duo model of post-colonial ideology:

Liberation psychology: -Addresses economic and social problems in societies marked by inequality, defining its main goal as the transformation and fair development of these societies Context: -White with indigenous, indigenous and black and white and black composed latin America (brazil) -no need to right or read, Process of liberation: Things we see in our social environment are not natural, fixed or stable - We can change our reality

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES: We as individuals have the power to do so

Visions of liberation psychology Development of informed practice: - Development of informed practice - Positive transformation in affect behavior and cognitions of oppressed to empower - Increased social equality (improved outcomes for all, including oppressors) Indigenous psychology The scientific study of human behavior that is native, focused on local context, it is designed for its people to develop locally relevant psychologies indigenous psychology is not just for indigenous people Etic approach Culture general Universality Control exerted by researchers Several cultures compared

Emic approach focuses on a particular culture limited structure uncovered understood in cultures own terms A more indigenous psychology, the uniqueness of a particular culture

Indigenous psychology and bicultural psychology Liu Wilson McClure and Higgens 1999 The top ten events in NZ history, the selection for both Maori and Europeans is individually expressed with some cross overs. E.g treaty of Waitangi, maori Polynesian arrival Implicit Association Test (IAT) A measure developed within social psychology to identify the strength of someone automatic response, between mental representations and objects/concepts in memory. Is New Zealand bicultural? Treaty of Waitangi, Te reo maori recognized as one of NZ’s official languages The data from the Liu & Sibley study found that both explicit and implicit data showed pakeha participants perceive pakeha and Maori NZers as being more strongly associated with NZ than Asians. New Zealand is bicultural, it is very strong in New Zealand. True for minority groups additionally. Durie – the view of maori within psychology Discusses argument for legal purposes - Human rights and non- discrimination - Historical sovereignty - Self determination Most indigenous people believe that being the first peoples lead them to have a stronger connection to the environment.

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES:

This relationship with the environment is beneficial for health in general, the desire to be exposed to nature for heatlh Maori indigenous psychology We share common views of history, leads to understanding of biculturalism, we see automatically the link between NZ and biculturalism, Durie argues that there are aspects of indigenous peoples and a holistic perspective of health A word of caution: - Many voices in maoridom - Oral traditions o When given the opportunity they wanted to record their history - limitations of translating into English - Maori knowledge as sacred and limits of sharing content o As it allowed them to survive (ultra cultural species) therefore they were vital for survival a...