Syg Exam 1 Review PDF

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A review I made for our first exam. ...

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Syg 2000 – Exam 1 Review (Revel ch 1-3, burn ch 1-3, lec vids 1-9) Legend: = definition, = important note module 1 notes: Revel ch 1: Lesson 1.1 

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Sociological perspective (or imagination) : understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context. (how groups (society) influence people) Sociological perspectives emphasize the environments in which people live and examines the environments that influences their lives. Look at social location: e.g. how jobs, inc, educ, sex, age, race affect behavior/ideas. Social location: social corners that people occupy because of their place in a society. Maurice is a college-educated male who works in a bank. This describes his social location. Society: group of people who share a culture and a territory. Born during the Industrial Rev (in the 1800’s), sociology developed in response to an initial break between human beings and the land. Sociology: scientific study of human society; how societies influence individuals and how individuals influence society. Social sciences explain the social world and human relations; they use the scientific method to understand the social world. What 3 characteristics form the social structure of a society? Values, beliefs, and cultural patterns. Why are both history and biography essential for the sociological perspective? o History: each society located in broad stream events, generating ideas/proper roles o Biography: how individual’s specific experiences (not instincts) are central to their thinking Human society’s three main characteristics have been: a group of people, sharing a culture, and sharing a territory (land). C. Wright Mills (1959): “The sociological perspective enables us to grasp the connection between history and biography.”

(he coined the social definitions for biography and history^^)  Durkheim’s Research Principle: o Suggested we examine the social forces, institutions, social structures in society that shape and influence people’s thinking and behavior. o Example: his study on suicide rates, and how less social interaction might lead to a higher risk of suicide.

Lesson 1.2: origins of sociology  Origins of Sociology: not superstition/myth, but science (theory tested by sys research)  Emerged mid-1800s: when social observers began to use scientific method to test out ideas  Grew from begin of Industrial Revolution: social upheaval broke ties to the land/began to develop a culture of ready answers  Human society began to break bond between land and biology, and began to distinguish its own boundary, independent of nature.  Tradition: which had provided the answers to life, could no longer be counted on.  Sociology: study of structure, development, and function of a society.  A main objective of sociology is to scientifically study this “social boundary-making”.  Auguste Comte (1800s): o Founding father of sociology (even though his conclusions and armchair phil have been abandoned) o Asserted that we should use scientific method to study society much in the way natural sciences study the natural world. (but never used it himself (had an armchair philosophy)) o armchair philosophy: drew conclusions from informal observations (not modern research) o Principles to be used for reform: of entire society, making it a better place to live (Study society to find its problems and fix it.) o Introduced positivism: the application of the scientific approach to the social world (but never used it) o coins “sociology”: study of society; Gr. logos (study of)/Lat. socius(companion)

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o seeing results French rev: Comte asks what creates social order, not anarchy/change (Comste: what are the mechanisms that maintain social order in the midst of chaos?) D.Herbert Spencer (2nd founder soc): o sociologists should NOT guide social reform, they should not help the poor because it interferes with social Darwinism. o social Darwinism: survival of fittest: the more capable/intelligent survive, less capable die out o should not interfere: misguided do-gooders get in way and help less fit to survive o not scientific: was social philosopher; did not conduct research; ideas discredited. (practiced armchair phil) Karl H. Marx (1800s): o Theories about capitalism and socialism o Introduced conflict theory. o Like Comte, wanted to fix social problems and thought class conflict was the basis of social problems. o Thought that class conflict was the basis of social problems. o argued that modes of production (economic systems) are the root of society (that economics are the root of social change) o class conflict: Marx’s term for the struggle between capitalists and workers (bourgeoisie(owners) vs. proletariats (workers)) o elim class conflict: when revolution of proletariat (workers) establish no classes o Why is he considered an early sociologist? His insights into the relationship between social classes is why he is recognized as an early sociologist. Whereas game theorists abstractly tally outcomes with points gained or lost, Marx conceptualized overall long-term gains along two dimensions: Amount of control and productivity. Emile Durkheim: o has sociology recognized as separate discipline (Uni of Bourdeaux, 1887) o Focused on how social forces influence people’s behaviors.

o (used research) suicide theory: social factors are central to suicide rates: due to stability in group/national differences. o examples of suicide rates: Protestants>cath, male>female, unmarried>married o social integration: the degree to which members of a group or society feel united by shared values and other social bonds. o Social integration explains: soc ties, connection/responsibilities impede suicide o His central principle: examine social forces that affect lives, not only individualistic factors.  Durkheim concluded that societies exert a predictable influence on individual choices, thereby justifying the study of society using scientific methods.  Along with Durkheim, Spencer and Marx also considered founders of sociology  Max Weber: o one of most influential sociologists o argues Protestants help capitalism because, Cath believe go heaven since baptized & in church but Prot undermine security, they don’t know if they’re saved until judgment day: financial success is a sign of this. This spurs savings, so that surplus can be invested to make even more, encourage capitalism. o Known for connecting the development of capitalism to the protestant work ethic. o Disagreed with Marx’s claim that economics is the central force in social change. That role belongs to religion, he said. o Religion sparked capitalism, he believes. o Spirit of capitalism: the desire to invest capital in order to make more money.

Lesson 1.3: Sociology in north America (estab 1890s): initial domination Uni of Chicago Sociology dep  Key figures: Albion Small (starts the depart); George Herbert Mead; Ernest Burgess  Talcott Parsons: develops functionalist perspective (structural functionalism)—parts contribute to whole society 

 Parson’s development of abstract models of society influenced a gen. of sociologists.  C. Wright Mills: urged social reform, analyzing the role of the power elite—top leaders of business, politics, military—a threat to freedom  W.E.B Dubois: studied racial inequality between black and white people. (first black person to earn a doctorate at Harvard) (cofounder of NAACP) (social reformer)  Jane Adams: tried to bridge the gap between privileged and underprivileged, co-founded Hull House with Ellen G Starr. (Nobel Peace prize recipient)  Harriet Martineau: o First female sociologist o Originally, sociology was dominated by a male perspective. o Early research on social life in US and England (slavery, poverty, prisons).  Why were many early female sociologists ignored by academic sociologists? Because they focused on social reform.  3 types of Sociology: o Basic sociology: research only soc, to gain knowledge, not for reform. o Applied sociology: using sociology to solve problems, for social reform. o Public sociology: using soc for the public good, to guide politicians and policy makers.  Basic sociology can morph into public sociology. (example: Devah Pager and her analysis of former inmates looking for jobs.)

Lesson 1.4: Theoretical Perspectives (3)  Theory: a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another.  Theoretical perspectives in sociology: conceptual frameworks in which facts are placed.  3 maj theories in sociology: symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, conflict theory  our unique capacity to build on symbols is the basis for cultural evolution  Symbolic Interactionism:

o rose from Scottish moral philosophers noting evaluation of conduct thru comparison to others. o Symbols are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate. o Symbols define our relationships (mother, brother, etc) o (developed by) bringing this to sociology: Charles Horton Cooley, William I. Thomas, George Herbert Mead o study: how people use symbols to develop their view of the world and to communicate with one another o directs relationships: symbol tells you how you are related to others—and how you should react toward them o coordination: symbols allows us to coordinate actions with those of other people o behav shaped by meaning: study how behavior dep on ways define self/others;even self=symbol: ideas @ who we are o Self changing: according to how we interpret reactions of others, constantly adjusting views of who we are o They analyze how social life depends on the way we define ourselves and others, studying face to face interaction. o example: divorce rates have gone up because the symbol (meaning) of marriage has changed over the decades. Marriage is now about to love, rather than necessity. Divorce is less immoral now and more about starting over  Functional Analysis: o Society is a whole unit made up of interrelated parts that work together towards equilibrium. o Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim all touched upon and agreed with this. o Structure: how the parts fit together o Function: what each part does and how it contributes. o weakening of the functional interdependence of family members (members are no longer codependent) o goods and services could now be purchased by either husband or wife, family became weakened and divorce rates went up  organic analogy: August Comte and Herbert Spencer view society as living organism (structural func)  Conflict Theory:

o 3 elements: conflict over scarce resources, power protecting priviledge, ideological legitimation o Conflict over scarce resources: never enough to go around when sources of wealth are land-based. Competition for these resources is often a zero-sum game. o Competition producing knowledge is more often than not a non-zero sum game. o Power to protect privilege: -a common tactic of winners is to use their control over limited resource to divide the losers and rule over them. o Ideological legitimation: the winners in a game (dominant group) promote ideology or cultural symbols to legitimate their power, losers are characterized as inferior and incapable of amassing resources. o Subject losers to cultural symbols that sag their motivation/desire to fight. o Society is composed of groups that compete with one another for scarce resources. o Karl Marx, founder of conflict theory. o Lewis Coser: conflict is more likely to develop in close relationships.  Robert Merton: o Dismissed idea that society is like a living organism but believed in functionalism. o Functions: beneficial consequences of peoples actions. o Dysfunctions: same as func, but negative. o Manifest func/dysfunc: intended o Latent func/dysfunc: unintended  Levels of analysis: macro and micro o Macro level: conflict theorists and functionalists focus on this. o Micro level: symbolic interactionists focus on this.  Why are theories and research both essential? Theories require research as evidence and research requires theories as a way to connect unrelated facts.

Lesson 1.5, 1.6, 1.7  To understand social life, we need to move beyond common sense and understand what is really going.  The 8 Research Steps: o 1) Select topic

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o 2) Define problem o 3) Review the literature o 4) Formulate a hypothesis o 5) Choose a research method o 6) Collect the Data o 7) Analyze the results o 8) Share the results. Scientific research process: o 1) literature review. o 2) Formulate testable hypotheses: state what you expect find (predict) based on theory. (example: ratio of female/male suicide risk decreases with industrial development.) o 3) operationalize concepts in hypothesis: precise measures: e.g. development=GNP/cap o 4) validity of measures: measure what they purport to measure o 5) reliability: consistent (same) results when repeated over, even by other researcher. o 6) Assess whether the results were representative of a population or group. Sample: elements selected from & representative of a larger, target population - random: all elements in pop have the same chance of being included in study - stratified: within categories, number in sample set to be proportional to population. Surveys: respondents in sample asked neutral questions: not loaded to create bias o example: not “Don’t you think that men who kill themselves should go to hell?” o close-ended questions: follow by list of possible answers vs. open-ended 6 ways not to do research (to load the dice): o 1. choose a biased sample: a sample that is not representative of population o 2. ask biased questions: ask questions that are not neutral, but give predicted result

o 3. list biased choices o 4. discard undesirable results o 5. misunderstand subjects’ world: may be embarrassed to give polit incorrect response o 6. analyze data incorrectly: e.g., add/subtract control variables until get desired result  7 research methods: o Survey o Participant Observation: researcher is participant and observes. (ex: “On Being Sane in Insane Places”: normal put themselves mental hospitals)

o Case Study: intensive analysis of indiv, situation, event. (not used common due to issue of generalizability) o Secondary Analysis: the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers. o Analysis of Documents: and recorded sources, vids, etc. o Experiments: use experimental & control groups/indep & dep vars/ to test causation - experimental group: subjects exposed to independent variable - control group: subjects who are not exposed to independent variable - independent variable: factors causing change in dependent variable - dependent variable: factor that is changed by an independent variable

o Unobtrusive Measures: way observing people who don’t know they are being studied.

Lesson 1.8, 1.9, 1.10:  Gender is significant in sociological research because it might affect the way data is collected because of respondent answers.  Ethics forbid the falsification of results, as well as plagiarism.  Brajuha Research: o Example of protecting research subjects o Mario Brajuha at Stony Brook: refuses to surrender field notes on restaurant workers

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o district attorney subpoenaed notes when restaurant working at suspiciously burned o Brajuha received threats: from unsavory characters, perhaps those who set fire Laud Humphreys research: o on tearooms: public restrooms for anonymous male sex o 1. Secret Observer: was “watchqueen”: lookout for police/unwelcome strangers o 2. Secretly records license plate #s: get’s addresses from St. Louis police dept. o a. year later: arranges to interview these men in medical study w/ dif hair style o b. findings: men lead conventional lives; some heterosexuals use t-rm quick sex o c later admission (1975 edition): should have identified himself as a researcher. Research vs Reform: (3 periods in sociology): o 1st period: main goal to improve society (until 1920) o 2nd period: developing abstract knowledge (1920s – 60s) o 3rd period: currently, sociologists seek to apply their research findings. Globalization: the growing interconnections among nations due to the expansion of capitalism. (new world order) Values in Sociological Research: Max Weber declares should be “value free” . A. meaning: sociologist’s personal values @ what good in life shouldn’t affect research 1. Yet values still play role in research: e.g. influences selection of topics 2. Replication safeguard: other researchers repeating study to compare results

module 2 notes: Revel ch 2: Lesson 2.1  Culture: the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next.

 Material culture: material objects that distinguish a group of people.  Nonmaterial Culture: group’s ways thinking(beliefs, values)/doing (pat of behav: lang, gestures)  examples: North African assumptions @ crowding to buy ticket/staring in public  no custom right: people simply become comfortable with customs learned as child  “The last thing a fish would ever notice would be water.” – Ralph Lipton  Culture becomes the lens through which we perceive and evaluate what is going on around us.  culture within us: learned/shared ways of believing/doing penetrate us at early age  culture shock: disorientation people experience when submerged in a new culture, unfamiliar to their own.  Ethnocentrism: a tendency to use our own group’s way of doing things as a yardstick for judging others. (developed by William Sumner) o positive: creates ingroup loyalties; negative: discrim against those whose ways differ  Culture provides a moral imperative (we think our way is the right way)  There is nothing natural about mat and nonmat culture.  Cultural relativism: not judging a culture, but trying to understand it on its own terms. (example: most U.S. citizens oppose raising bulls to stab them to death in front crowd)  (Sick Societies) by Robert Edgerton: Culture values that harm/exploit others are inferior to those that enhance people’s lives. (gang rapes, fem circumcision, etc)  universals: all people have culture; all people are ethnocentric

Revel ch 2: Lesson 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5,  Language is the (basis) main vehicle for passing on an expanding culture.  Nonmaterial culture involves symbols and gestures.  Symbol: something to which people add meaning and use to communicate  Gesture: the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate.

 universal gestures: expression of anger, fear, pouting, sadness built into biology? 1. infants born deaf/blind: no chance to learn gestures, express themselves same way  language: allows human experience to be cumulative/social or shared past/planning (future)  Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: o Language shapes the way we think/perceive. o Learning a language also means acquiring the perceptions embedded in that language. o Suggests that people cannot fully understand something they do not have a word for. o Edward Sapir & Benjamin Whorf: wrongly think Hopi no tenses distinguishing fut, pastb.  reverse common sense: opposite to events force themselves into consciousness  Values are standards of defining what is desirable/undesirable, beautiful/ugly, good/bad.  Norms: expectations or rules telling you how to behave (developed out of values)  According to sociologist Robin Williams, one of the core values of the US is striving for personal achievement or success.  Sanctions: reactions people receive for following or breaking norms. (can be positive or negative)  Moral holidays: behavior normally prohibited is allowed. People allowed to break norms. (see also: moral holiday places, same thing but with locations)  safety valve: allows release of deviance—e.g. spring break in Florida/Mexico  folkways: norms that aren’t strictly enforced (shrug shoulders); ex, pass left on sidewalk  Mores (mo-rays): norms strictly enforced since thought essential to core values/well-...