Exam 1 review guide PDF

Preview

Summary

Review Notes for Exam 3. Teacher is Larry Nelson....

Description

Review Sheet for Exam #1 Chapter 1: History & Theories 1) Know the definition and domains of child development (i.e., physical, social & emotional, cognitive) Defintion: an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to understanding all changes that human beings experience throughout life span Domains: physical cognitive emotional/social 2) Know the definition of ‘theory’ Integrated, orderly sets of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. 3) Know the definitions of, be able to distinguish between, and know the practical implications of: - continuous & discontinuous Continuous: cumulative process of adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with. Discontinuous: new and different ways of interpreting and responding to world emerge and particular time periods. - nature & nurture Nature: Genetic factors determine development and behavior. Nurture: Environmental factors determine development and behavior. - one course of development or many One course: Children everywhere follow same sequence of development. Many: Children have different contexts (genetic and environmental circumstances) that result in different paths of change. - The individual: Stable or open to change Stable: individual differences emerge early and persist due to heredity and early experience. Open to change: Change is possible and likely if new experience supports it. 4) For each of the following time periods, Philosophers, Theories & Theorists, know : - names, corresponding ages and defining aspects of stages (where applicable) - know how the person or theory views each of these questions: - continuous or discontinuous - nature or nurture - universal or contexts - The individual: Stable or open to change - know concepts in and aspects of each theory that might explain actual behaviors. -know any terms or concepts listed below the theory A. Psychoanalytic (Freud): discontinuous, stable (problems from each stage are hard to fix), universal (stages) and contexts (outcome of parental relationships), nature (id) and nurture (superego) - ID, Ego, Superego ID: largest portion of mind, unconscious, present at birth. (hunger, thirst, sex drive-biological needs and desires) Ego: conscious, rational. Redirects id impulses acceptably. Emerges in early infancy. Superego: Conscience (sense of right and wrong), develops from 3-6 from interactions with caregivers. (Sounds like your mom! - stages of development (names of stages, ages, etc.) Oral: Birth to 1 year. Conflict to overcome: weaning Anal: 1-3 yrs. Conflict: toilet training Phalic: 3-6 yrs. Conflict: how to satisfy desire for love. Latency: 6-11 yrs. Sexual instincts die down. Genital: Adolescence. Impluses from phalic stage reappear. B. Psychosocial (Erikson): discontinuous, stable, universal and contexts, nature and nurture - stages of development (names of stages, ages, major conflicts, etc.)

Basic trust vs. mistrust: Birth-1 yr. warm responsive care vs. waiting too long for comfort Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: 1-3 yrs. Autonomy comes from reasonable free choice. Initiative vs. guilt: 3-6 yrs. Initiative comes when parents support child’s new sense of purpose and direction. Parents should not demand too much self-control. Industry vs. inferiority: 6-11 yrs. Working and cooperating with others vs. negative experiences leading to feelings of incompetence. Identity vs Identity diffusion: Adolescence. Self chosen values and vocational goals lead to secure personal identity. Intimacy vs. isolation: Young adulthood. Intimate ties to other people vs. isolation due to earlier disappointments. Generativity vs stagnation: Middle adulthood. Generativity is giving to next generation. “mid-life crisis” Ego integrity vs despair: old age. Reflect on what kind of person they have been. C. Behaviorism: continuous, context, open to change, nurture - Classical Conditioning - neutral stimulus, reflexive response, etc. Neutral stimulus: bell-food-salivate. Bell is neutral stimulus. Reflexive response: automatic - Operant Conditioning (Skinner) - negative/positive reinforcement Positive: introduction of stimulus to increase behavior (praise for correct answer) Negative: removal of stimulus to increase behavior. (take years of prison sentence for good behavior) - negative/positive punishment Negative: removal of stimulus to decrease behavior (grounding, taking away $) Positive: introduction of stimulus to decrease behavior (spanking) - Social Learning Theory (Bandura) - modeling, observational learning, imitation, etc. Child can see something and learn from it. Ex: Watching violent movies can lead to aggressive behavior. Child only has to see someone stick their hand in the fire and be burned to know not to do it. D. Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Piaget):child is actively building mental structure as they manipulate and explore world. discontinuous, both context and universal, open to change if they accommodate, stable if they assimilate, nature and nurture. 2 Things are Necessary for development: 1. brain structure/maturation 2. Introduction to concept (create a schema). Child has a choice-constructs own development. - adaptation: how child adapts to disequilibrium - assimilation: process of fitting a new experience into existing schemas. Less sophisticated. Rationalizing.“look, it’s a metal bird!” - accommodation: process of changing existing schemas to fit external experiences. More sophisiticated, leads to true growth and understanding. “Look, it’s an airplane!” Adding new “folders” to knowledge. - equilibrium: balance between internal structures and information encountered in everyday worlds. Schema and reality match. - developmental stages (names and ages) Sensorimotor: Birth-2 yrs. Preoperational: 2-7 yrs. Concrete operational: 7-11 yrs. Formal operational: 11 yrs. E. Information Processing Theory: the mind is like a computer. From input to output, information is actively coded, transformed, and organized.

Continuous, context, open to change, nurture with a little bit of nature (different “processing speeds”) - sensory input, short term memory (or working memory), long term memory Sensory input: presentation to senses Short term/working memory: holds limited amount of information which is worked on to facilitate memory and problem solving. Long term memory: stores information permanently. F. Evolutionary Psychology/Ethology (e.g., Darwin): nature (but needs good environment), discontinuous, universal, stable. Evolutionary psychology: seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies and how they change with age. Expands upon ethology. Ethology: concerned with adaptive or survival value of behavior and its evolutionary history - natural selection, survival of the fittest, adaptability, critical & sensitive periods Natural selection/survival of the fittest: species have characteristics that are fit to their environments, individuals best adapted survive to reproduce and pass genes on to later generations. Adaptability:how well you adapt to environment to allow you to survive Critical period: trait has to develop during this period or it won’t develop at all. Child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs support of stimulating environment (ex: imprinting). Sensitive period: time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. This is the ideal time, and trait won’t develop as well if not at this time. (Ex: learning a language). G. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner): views child as developing within complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of surrounding environment. Child affects environment as well. Open to change, context, continuous, nurture - Microsystems, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem Microsystem: activities and interaction patterns in child’s immediate surroudings (school, family, day care) Mesosystem: connections between microsystems (parent-teacher conferences, parent help with hw, dad is scoutmaster) Exosystem: social settings that do not contain child but affect his/her experiences in immediate settings (parent’s work place, community organizations) Macroystem: values, laws, customs, resources of culture that influence experiences and interactions at inner levels of environment (views about women and children, day care requirements). Chronosystem: aspect of time, temportal changes in child’s environment that affect development. Can be imposed externally or arise within organism (children select, modify, and create many of their own settings and experiences). (Ex: moving) F. Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky): Children acquire ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture through cooperative dialogue with more knowledgeable members of society Continuous, open to change, nurture and nature, and contexts - role of culture, scaffolding, and zone of proximal development Role of culture: children are taught what is important in their culture. Scaffolding: The children are not given the answer, but are helped to reach it. Zone of proximal development: what is within child’s present learning abilities. How far child travels within the zone depends on extent others are willing to guide child’s eagerness for new concepts and ideas. The lower boundary (actual developmental level) is where child can perform working independently. Upper boundary (potential developmental level) is what is within child’s present learning abilities. G. Medieval Period :Childhood (to age 7 or 8) is regarded as separate phase with special needs. Vulnerable, can be possessed by a good or bad spirit (religious views). There were manuals giving childhood advice. H. Reformation - Puritans (child depravity views) Kids were naturally evil, so they had to shape them. (emphasized self control,wore tight clothes, beat them). But, parents viewed their role as being very important so were often still kind to children. I. Enlightenment - John Locke - Tabula Rasa (blank slate)

You have opportunity to shape child. Lead to behaviorism. - Jean Rousseau - noble savages too much parent interference can hurt child, they will grow naturally. Foreshadowed concepts of stage and maturation. Chapter 2: The Research Process 1) Know the different types of research DESIGNS (i.e., correlational design - know what a correlation coefficient is; experimental design, longitudinal, crosssectional, and sequential designs; etc. – see tables 2.3 and 2.4 in book) Correlational design: a research design that does not alter participant’s experiences; examines relationships between 2 variables. Measure with correlation coefficient. Coorelation establishes relationship, not causation. Advantage: examine relationships between variables, inexpensive and convenient Disadvantage: cannot draw causation Experimental design: design in which investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions; permits inference about cause and effect. Measured by independent and dependent variables. Random assignment: unbiased procedure for assigning participants to treatment groups, such as flipping a coin. Increases chances that participants’ characteristics will be equally distributed. Matching: assigning participants with similar characteristics in equal numbers to treatment conditions. Ensures group will be equivalent on factors likely to distort results. Advantages: can draw causation, allows control over possible confounding issues Disadvantages: Findings may not generalize to real world. Longitudinal: same participants studied repeatedly at different ages. Advantages: can identify common patterns and individual differences in participants, permit researchers to examine relationships between early and later events and behaviors Disadvantages: very expensive, time consuming, biased sampling, cohort effects issues with attrition, theoretical and methodological changes in field can make findings obsolete. Sequential: same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages. Advantages: when design includes longitudinal it permits longitudinal and cross-sectional comparions. Reveals cohort effects. Permits tracking of age-related changes more effectively than longitudinal design. Disadvantage: may have same problems as longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies Cross-sectional: people of differing ages all studied at same time. Advantages: can study multiple groups at same time, avoid issues with attrition and practice effects, inexpensive and convenient Disadvantages: does not examine individual development, cohort effects can influence findings Microgenetic: change is tracked from time it begins until it stabilizes, as participants master an everyday or novel task Advantages:offers insights into how change occurs Disadvantages: requires intensive study of participants’ moment-by-moment behaviors; time required for participants to change is difficult to anticipate. practice effects. - know descriptions, strengths, weaknesses (e.g., practice effects), and when to use each design; and types of conclusions that can be drawn from each design -know how to tell the difference between a dependent and an independent variable Independent: manipulated by research Dependent: influenced by independent variable 2) Know different types of research METHODS (i.e., self-report, observations, ethnography, etc.)

- know descriptions, strengths and weaknesses, and when and how to use them (Table 2.1) Self-reports: surveys Strength: permits comparison of participants’ responses and efficient data collection. Researchers can specify answer alternatives that participants might not think of in an open-ended interview. Weakness: does not yield same depth of info as clinical interview. Subject to inaccurate reporting. Clinical interviews: researcher uses flexible, open-ended questions to probe for participant’s point of view Strength: comes close to seeing how participants think in everyday life. great breadth and depth of info in short amount of time Weakness: may not result in accurate reporting of info. Difficult to compare individual’s responses. Structured interview: research asks each participant the same questions in the same way Naturalistic observation: researcher goes into natural environment to observe behavior of interest Strength: reflects participants’ everyday behaviors Weakness: cannot control conditions under which participants are observed. Observer influence and bias. Structured observation: researcher sets up situation that evokes behavior of interest and observes it in lab. Strength: grants each participant an equal opportunity to display behavior of interest. permits study of behaviors rarely seen in everyday life. Weakness: may not be accurate of behavior in everyday life. observer influence and bias. Psychophysiological: measure relationship between physiological processes and behavior Strength: helps researchers infer the perceptions, thoughts, and emotions of infants and young children, who cannot report them clearly. Weakness: cannot reveal with certainty the meaning of autonomic or brain activity. Many factors beside those of interest to the researcher can influence and physiological response. Clinical/case study: attempts to understand unique individual child by combining interview data, observations, test scores, and sometimes psychophysiological measures Strength: provides rich, descriptive insights into my factors affecting development. Weakness: may be biased by researchers’ theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant. Ethonography: attempts to understand unique values and social processes of culture by living with members and taking field notes for extended period of time Strength: provides a more complete description than can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire. Weakness: may be biased by researchers’ values and theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individual and settings other than ones studied. 3) Be able to recognize instances of sound research (i.e., reliability vs. validity, random sampling, etc.) Reliability: consistency, repeatability of measures of behavior. Are we getting same responses? Validity: extent to which in a study accurately reflect what investigator intended to measure. Are we measuring what we are trying to measure? 4) Know important issues related to children’s research rights (ethics – informed consent, privacy, etc.) and be able to identify violations of these rights (see table 2.5 in book) protection from harm: If harm seems possible, researchers should find other means for obtaining info or abandon the research. risks vs. benefits ratio: weighing costs in terms of inconvenience and possible injury against value of study for advancing knowledge and improving conditions of life. informed consent: Child and parent need to be told all aspects of research. Have right to discontinue participation at any time. Privacy: conceal identity on any info.

Debriefing: children have right to be informed of results of research in appropriate language. beneficial treatments: Children in control groups have right to alternative beneficial treatments if beneficial treatments are under investigation. 5) Know what a hypothesis is. Prediction about behavior drawn from a theory 6) Know aspects of good critical thinking (i.e., ask questions, consider alternate explanations, etc.) Ask questions. Examine evidence. Avoid emotional reasoning. Consider alternate explanations Tolerate uncertainty. Chapter 3: Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth 1) Know the description, risk factors and causes of Down’s syndrome Results from problems with 21st chromosome (three instead of two). Most common chromosomal disorder. Results in mental retardation, memory nd speech problems, limited vocab, and slow motor development. Distinct physical features. Older mothers are more likely to have babies with Down’s. 2) For prenatal diagnostic methods (e.g. amniocentesis, Chorionic villus sampling), know - descriptions - when they can and can’t be used - advantages & disadvantages of each diagnostic method Amniocentesis: hollow needle inserted through abdominal wall to obtain sample of fluid in uterus. Cells examined for defects. Can be performed by 14th week after conception. Small risk of miscarriage. Chorionic Villus Sampling: Thin tube insterted through vagina or hollow needle inserted through abdominal wall. Small plug of tissue from end of one or more chorionic villi is removed. Cells examined for genetic defects.Can be performed at 9 wks. Greater risk of miscarriage than amniocentesi. Small risk of limb deformities, which increase earlier the procedure is performed. Fetoscopy: small tube with light is inserted into uterus to inspect fetus for defects of limbs and face. Allows sample of fetal blood to be obtained and tested for hemophilia and sickle cell disease and neural defects. 15-18 wks, but can be done as early as 5. Some risk of miscarriage. Ultrasound: High-frequency sound waves beamed at uterus. Assesses fetal age, detection of multiple pregnancies, and gross physial defects. Used to guide amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling ,and fetoscopy. Increases chance of low birth weight if used 5 or more times. Maternal Blood Analysis: Developing organism’s cells enter mother’s bloodstream. Elevated level of alph-fetoprotein may indicate kidney disease, abnormal closure of esophagus, or nerual tube defects, such as anencephaly and spina bifida. Isolated cells can be examined for genetic defects. Can be done by second month of pregnancy. Preimplantation Genetic Diagnostics: after in vitro fertilization and duplication of zygote into a cluster of about 8 to 10 cells,1 or 2 cells are removed and examined for hereditary defects. Only if that sample is free of detectable genetic disorders is fertilized ovum implanted in uterus. 3) Know about teratogens (i.e., drugs, tobacco, etc.) and maternal factors (i.e., exercise, nutrition, emotional stress, maternal age and previous births) that can affect a baby AND know the effects on the baby, her organs, and her long term development Drugs (heroin, met, cocaine): risk of prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, and are born drug-addicted. Evidence on long term effects is mixed. Tobacco: Underweight, may...