Test 2 Cheat Sheet - Lecture notes 2 PDF

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Test 2 Cheat Sheet April Masarik...

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Chapter 5: Infancy & Toddlerhood – Physical Development Infant- Round, soft and plump, no muscle, head takes up 1/4th of body, can tell how old by how fat. Baby fat peaks around 9 months, by the end of the first year 32 inches/ 22 pounds. 24 hours can grow as much as an ½ inch! Toddler- Still big head, legs are growing, slimming down, 36 inches 30 lbs. Cephalocaudal- “head to tail” head develops quicker than lower part. Proximodorsal- “near to far”/ Center of body outward Compared to boys, girls... Are shorter and lighter Have higher ratio of fat to muscle Are considerably ahead of boys in skeletal age Are advanced in organ development Compared to Caucasian-Americans... Asian children below average African-American above average (in size and skeletal age) BRAIN: Human brain has 100 to 200 billion neurons that store/transmit information, synapses = tiny gaps between neurons where neurons come close together, Neurons send messages by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters Prenatal:  Neurons develop around 7 weeks (way more than actually needed)  migration = move to their appropriate place in the brain  differentiate = establish their function Infancy/Toddlerhood:  Synaptic connections increase at rapid pace  Stimulation from environment required  Neurons not stimulated lose connections (synaptic pruning) Cerebral Cortex= 85% of brains weight Left: Better at sequential, analytic processing, Verbal and written ability, positive emotions Right: Specialized for holistic, integrative processing, Spatial ability, negative emotions. Adopted before 6 months, impressive catch-up Adopted after 6 months, serious deficit Breastfeeding until age 2 Introduction of solid foods around 6 months Some breastfeeding benefits (for baby and mama): antibodies, immunity, fewer allergies and inflammation, bonding, weight loss, cost effective, lower rates of postpartum depression. Severe dietary diseases: Marasmus = depleted of all nutrients Kwashiorkor = not enough protein Consequences: Organ damage, Smaller all around, Disrupted appetite centers Caregiver warmth and affection is vital for growth Growth faltering= height, weight, and head circumference are substantially lower and who are withdrawn and apathetic Experience-expectant brain growth

Depends on “ordinary” experiences “expected” by brain for normal growth, Occurs early and naturally Experience-dependent brain growth Results from specific learning experiences, Varies widely across individuals and cultures Dynamic systems theory of motor development (premise of the theory and a few examples of it in action) Gross- Crawling, Standing, Walking Fine- Reaching, Grasping, Handling objects Permits coordination Head Erect (6 weeks) Lifts Self by arms/rolls from side to back (2 months) Grasps Cube (3-4 months) Sits alone/crawls (7 months) Pulls to stand (8 months) Stands alone (11 months) Walks/build cube tower (11-12 months) Scribbles (14 months) Jumps (23-24 months) Tiptoe (25 months) Habituation paradigm (be sure to understand novelty preference and familiarity preference – and how researchers use these preferences in the habituation paradigm to study infants and toddlers) Hearing: 6-8 months, start paying extra close attention to native language sounds and ignoring non-native sounds 7-9 months, start to divide speech stream into word-like units Vision: 7-8 months, Depth: Birth- 1- Motion sensitivity 2-3 months- binocular depth cues. 3-7- Pictorial depth cues. Pattern: Face: Around 3 months, can distinguish faces of 2 strangers, even if faces are very similar, around 5 months, can distinguish different emotional expressions (happy versus sad), Face-to-face experience influences gender and race preference (perceptual narrowing) Quiz Questions: Recovery to a new stimulus assesses an infant’s recent memory. Compared to bottle-fed infants, breastfed babies in povertystricken regions of the world, are 6 to 14 times more likely to survive in the first year of life. The prefrontal cortex undergoes especially rapid pruning of synapses during the preschool and school years. Newborns pre-reach with poorly coordinated swipes toward an object in front of them, but they rarely make contact with the object because of poor arm and hand control. Observations of new walkers reveal that they fall less often when carrying objects than when their hands are empty. The cerebral cortex contains the greatest number of neurons and synapses. In a process called synaptic pruning, seldom stimulated neurons lose their synapses so they can support future development. "Baby fat"- helps the infant maintain a constant body temperature. As 4 month old Molly stares at her crib mobile over a period of several minutes, she gradually loses interest in it. This is an example of Habituation. According to dynamic systems theory of motor development, each new skill is a joint product of which of the following four factors? Central nervous system development, the body's movement capacities, the child's goals, and environmental supports for the skill Chapter 6: Infancy & Toddlerhood – Cognitive Development Piaget: Develop “thinking” by acting directly on environment

Move through four “stages of thinking” “Think” with their eyes, ears, hands, mouth, etc. Cannot carry out many “thinking” activities inside their head BUT, can solve every day practical problems by end of toddlerhood. Sensorimotor (Birth- 2 years) • Infants “think” by acting on the world. • As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems. Preoperational (2-7 Years) • Preschoolers use symbols, develop language and makebelieve play. • Thinking still lacks the logic of later stages. Concrete Operational (7-11 years) • Reasoning becomes logical and better-organized. • Thinking is not yet abstract. Formal Operational (11 on) • Abstract thinking enables use of hypotheses, inferences. • Adolescents no longer rely on real-world circumstances for logic problems. 1. Reflexive schemes (birth-1 month) 2. Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) 3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) 4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months): beginning of object permanence 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Accurate AB searches 6. Mental representation (18-24 months) Challenges: Many studies found that this occurs much earlier than originally thought. Violation of expectation Method, Concept of numbers, Imitation Core Knowledge Perspective: Babies are born with a set of innate knowledge Core domains of thought allow babies to grasp new information much more quickly (and earlier) than Piaget believed “Knowledge” might be… Physical, Linguistic, Psychological, Numerical Assimilation- using current schemes to interpret the world, not a ton of change going on. Accommodation- Creating new schemes, change occurring Sociocultural Theory – Lev Vygotsky, all complex thinking has origins in social interaction, think in ways that have meaning to their culture. Make believe Play, ZPD (zone of proximal development) LanguageCoo around 2 months, Extremely attentive and observant with caregiver from 4 months on Babble-babble from 6 months on Joint attention, turn-taking games, preverbal gestures from 8-12 months, Say their first recognizable word around 12 months (range = 8-18 months), More “sophisticated” babbling that takes on culture’s patterns around 12 months, Vocabulary expands from ~50 to ~250 words from 18-24 months Nativist Perspective-

Theorist: Noam Chomsky Major points of LAD: Innate system of universal grammar, Unique to humans, “Etched” into our brains, Aphasias- communication disorders. Deaf children make their own language. Can chimps learn language? COMPREHENSION DEVELOPS FIRST Overextension- use words for way more, car= train, plain, trucks, ect. Underextension-use them too narrowly, bear means stuffed bear not actual bears. Telegraphic speech- like a telegram, cut out unnecessary words, car go, mommy shoe. IDS- infant directed speech Information Processing Theory Sensory register: sights and sounds are represented directly, stored briefly Short-term memory store: Attended-to information is kept briefly and “worked” on Working memory: number of items that can be briefly held in mind while engaging in some effort to manipulate them Long-term memory: permanent knowledge base Central executive (head honcho) Directs flow of information Coordinates incoming information with already-stored Selects, applies, and monitors strategies that help memory storage, comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving Automatic processes (autopilot) Require no space in working memory Can be done while focusing on other information Operant conditioning: Teach baby a cool trick (e.g., kick foot to get mobile to bounce) Wait a while, then see if they remember the trick 2month-olds remember a couple days after training 3-month-olds remember after one week By 6 months, memory increases to 2 weeks! Infantile amnesia – what is it and possible explanations? (review Biology and Environment Box) Individual differences in language development – biological sex, temperament, child- caregiver interactions, and culture. Quiz Questions: In most newborns, the right hemisphere of the brain reacts more strongly to stimuli that evoke negative emotion. As Eric’s competence increases, his mother gradually withdraws her support. This example illustrates the concept of Scaffolding. In the information-processing system, information first enters the sensory register, followed by the short-term memory store. According to Piaget, during times of rapid cognitive change, children are in a state of disequilibrium. Adult-child book reading promotes vocabulary growth in toddlerhood. In a series of studies using the violation of expectation method, Renee Baillargeon and her collaborators claimed to have found evidence for object permanence in the first few months of life.

Chapter 7: Infancy & Toddlerhood – Social & Emotional Development Infant-18 months: Trust vs. Mistrust 18months-3 years: Autonomy vs. shame and Guilt 3-5: Initiative vs. Guilt 5-13: Industry vs. Inferiority 13-21: Identity vs. Role Confusion 21-39: Intimacy vs. Isolation 40-65: Generativity vs. Stagnation 65+: Ego Integrity vs. Despair Emotion: first two years- attraction to pleasant stimulation and withdraw from unpleasant Happiness: Smile- from birth, social smile (6-10 weeks), laughter (3-4 months) Anger: General Distress (birth) Anger (4-6 months) Sadness: distress to “still face” (2-7 months), Fear: First fears (6-12 months) Stranger Anxiety (8-12 months) At first, infants depend on caregivers to soothe them In the second year, growth in _mental representation+ language_ leads to new ways of regulating emotions (connection to cognitive development!) Culture determines socially appropriate behavior (nose picking anyone?) Self-Conscious Emotions (require adult instruction) Guilt, Shame, Embarrassment, Envy, Pride Social Referencing: actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation. The Broccoli Experiment: 14 month-olds gave Allison crackers when she acted like she preferred broccoli, but 18 month-olds gave Allison what she preferred. Temperament: early-appearing, stable individual differences in Reactivity and self-regulation Thomas and Chess temperament: Easy Children-quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences (40%) Difficult Children-is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely (10%) Slow to Warm Up Children-inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjust slowly to new experiences (15%) Unclassified (35%) Rothbart’s description: Activity Level, Attention Span, Fearful Distress, Irritable Distress, Positive Affect, Effortful Control (self regulation girls are much better) 2 things differentiate it from Thomas and Chess model distress is differentiated by fear (fearful) or frustration (irritable) deletes overly broad dimensions such as regularity of body functions (e.g., a child who is regular in sleeping is not necessarily regular in eating or bowel habits) and intensity of reactions (e.g., a child who smiles and laughs intensely is not necessarily intense in fear, irritability, or motor activity) Bowlby’s Ethological Theory: reconsies the emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival. Attachment Q-Sort: does not differentiate between types of insecurity Factors that influence parental responsiveness

Self concept development in the first two years o The Rouge Experiment (watch the video) o The Shopping Cart study (watch the video) Quiz Questions: During the Strange Situation, Esteban was distressed when his mother left. He was also highly agitated after his mother’s return. He kicked and cried when she tried to hold him. What pattern of attachment was Esteban demonstrating? Insecure Resistant Baby Jane has begun to develop a sense of trust. She expects that her mother will respond when signaled. But Jane does not protest when separated from her mother. In which of Bowlby’s phases does Jane best fit? “attachment in the making” Twenty-two-year-old Daniel is overly dependent on his girlfriend. Daniel continually doubts his ability to meet new challenges. According to psychosocial theory, Daniel may not have fully mastered the tasks of trust and autonomy during infancy and childhood. Self-conscious emotions appear middle of the second year. Hunter is identified as a resultantly attached infant. Hunter’s mother probably provides inconsistent care. In Erikson’s theory, the psychological conflict of basic trust versus mistrust is resolved positively when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving. Which of the following children, when placed in front of a mirror, is most likely to respond to the appearance of a red dot on his or her nose by touching or rubbing his or her nose? 21-month old. In Rothbart’s model of temperament, irritable distress refers to, the extent of fussing and crying when desires are frustrated....