Tips for Writing (Letcure)SOSC1661 Readings. Useful for writing and lectures. PDF

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Academic Writing:Tips for StudentsJohn BradbeerDepartment of GeographyUniversity of PortsmouthIntroductionO ver the years we have asked students as freshers about their hopes, fears and expectations of studying geography for a degree at Portsmouth. W hile some express worries about keeping up with t...

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Academic Writing: Tips for Students John Bradbeer Department of Geography University of Portsmouth

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Introduction O ver the year s we have asked students as freshers about their hopes, fears and expectations of studying geography for a degree at Portsmouth. W hile some expr ess worries about keeping up with the work or coping with lectures, almost all students rate as their number one fear the writing of essays. T hese worr ies seem to include a feeling that essays are har d to write, that essay writing is a mysterious art and that their prior experiences of essay writing are rather unpleasant. T his guide is offered to help students gain a bit of confidence and become better academic writers. It is pr obably true that assessment in schools and colleges is less heavily reliant on essays that it was even twenty year s ago. W hen many of the academic staff were in school, essays were used a very great deal. Sometimes these tutors find it hard to imagine the difficulties that students have with essays simply because essay writing is a fairly unfamiliar activity. T he days ar e long gone when it was felt reasonable to set an essay on “W ing three-quar ter play in rugby” in a games period, as I was when at school during the bitterly cold winter in 1962/3!

T here are lots of general study guides for students, almost all of which have some good advice on academic writing. T here are also a number of special guides to student writing. In geography not only do we have a general student study guide (Kneale 1999), but we also have one devoted just to writing and communication (Hay 1996). I do not want to duplicate these guides, so I have gone for a format of series of tips organised around a number of broad headings. You will almost certainly need to follow up some of the tips and quite probably also you will benefit from a slightly different perspective to mine. So I have included a section on the various guides and I have also suggested a few of the very good web sites on student writing. I am sure that you will find these latter a very helpful addition to my tips.

The tips in this guide are really for what would be called discursive writing; that is writing at some length, say over 700 words and writing to argue a case or to answer a complex question of judgement. You may prefer to call this essay writing, as I did in the opening paragraph, but the guide will have other uses. Some of the tips will also be useful to help you write laboratory or fieldwork reports, but you will probably need further advice for these types of writing and I have not included advice for these reports. Most of the study guides in my bibliography do. However, I do think that the tips here will help you with probably unfamiliar forms of writing, the literature review and the critical review paper. In producing these tips, I have drawn on the various study guides and manuals on academic writing. I have also been setting and marking academic writing tasks for almost thirty years. So I hope that I have some experience of the things that students find difficult

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in academic writing and some good ideas of what tends to help students to overcome them. T here is also a great deal of research evidence on student writing in higher education. I have drawn on this in writing my tips At the heart of the problems students often have with writing at university is a paradox. In writing, the primary aim is communication of ideas, opinions and information. In almost all other forms of writing, the author/writer knows lots of things that the reader does not. T hat is why he/she is writing. A careful and skilled writer thinks about his/her reader and what the reader may reasonably be presumed to know already. In academic writing, the student feels that he/she knows relatively little and sees as the only reader the tutor who will mark the work. T his tutor is felt to know vastly more about the topic than does the writer. So the central paradox of student academic writing is that the usual assumptions of writing, a writer/author with knowledge and a reader with less knowledge and a wish to find out more, are reversed. This can be intimidating to the student writer and it also often leads to careless and unclear writing. It is very easy for you, the student writer to adopt an attitude of “he’ll know what I mean” when writing. It can also be a problem for the tutor when marking, as he/she may see things that you never intended. O ne student once told me in reply, when I wrote in the margin of their essay that I felt that there was a weakness in the argument in this paragraph, “I didn’t even think I was making an argument, let alone the one you say that I am making!” So I shall suggest that you think about your fellow students as your audience for your writing. T ry to forget the tutor as being the only and all knowing reader of your work.

Finally, I only offer these tips for you to think about and to try out. I hope that they will help you write better, but I cannot guarantee that you will write better. In the end only lots of writing practice, good feedback and reflection on the advice you have been given will count. Good luck with the first writing task.

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Assessment of essays

As essays are the most common form of academic writing, it would useful for me to say something about what tutors are looking for in students’ essays. Much of this could be modified and applied to other forms of writing. I need to be honest and say that assessing (and marking) essays can never be a completely objective and utterly reliable process. T here is always an element of subjective judgement. It is possible, however, to have sets of criteria. Every department will have its own and the criteria will also probably vary between years of study, with final year students being expected to meet higher and probably extra, more demanding standards than first years would have to. At Portsmouth, we usually use a check list like that in Hay (1996, p19-20). So I am going to start with his assessment schedule but slightly altered in format:

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Q uality of argument

argument fully addresses the question logically developed argument good and clear structure throughout identifiable introduction, themes and conclusions material relevant to the topic topic dealt with in suitable depth

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Q uality of evidence

argument well supported by evidence and examples accurate presentation of evidence and examples effective and appropriate use of figures and tables illustrative material correctly presented and cited

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Written expression and presentation

fluent and succinct writing grammatical sentences correct punctuation correct spelling legible (if hand written) and well set out correct length

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Sources and references

adequate number of references suitable level of references (this is not one of Hay’s criteria) adequate referencing and acknowledgement of sources (i.e. avoiding possible plagiarism) correct and consistent referencing in the text correctly presented bibliography/reference list

You should not see Hay’s list as having items of equal importance. The first main heading is the most important. T he quality of the argument will be the principal determinant of how good your essay is. T he quality of the evidence and how it is used would be the second most important criterion. T he last two, while, not critical, are still very important. At the margin, the quality of your writing and the sources that you have used, will make a real difference.

The next thing to look at is how a tutor might take a set of criteria like Hay’s and use them to award marks. Once again, there will be variations between departments and even between units run in the same department. In geography at Portsmouth we use a broad set of criteria that we apply to student writing. For essays the following criteria apply:

“Starred first” 80% and over

An outstanding account with total control over all the relevant material. Has a complete and imaginative synthesis of conceptual and factual components. Makes extensive reference to sources and examples. Shows great originality. Carefully and stylishly written.

First class 70-79%

An excellent account. H as a high level of understanding of material with excellent reference to sources and examples. A very good synthesis of conceptual and factual components. Makes good use of sources and examples. Shows a fair degree of originality. Communicates effectively and directly. N o errors in writing style, grammar, spelling etc.

Upper second class 60-69%

A good account. Shows a firm grip of the material and makes good reference to sources and examples. D emonstrates a critical stance to the material and is able to analyse or synthesise as required. Generally well structured and shows evidence of quite extensive background reading. W riting of a consistently good standard.

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Lower second class 50-59%

A satisfactory account. Shows a reasonable understanding of the material and presents this in a fairly well structured way. Examples and sources are used but not always well linked to the argument. Evaluative and critical dimensions not well developed. Conclusions not clearly stated. Fairly limited range of literature consulted. W riting moderately good.

Third class 40-49%

A weak account that is barely more than adequate. Some relevant material and examples, but also either significant omissions or much irrelevant material. T endency to assertion making claims not substantiated by appropriate evidence. N o obvious evaluative or critical dimension. Limited understanding of the material offered and little or no reference to literature. W riting often of poor quality and meaning perhaps unclear.

Fail 30-39%

An inadequate account. Very limited amount of relevant material. Major errors and omissions. Material not obviously understood. Little or no reference to literature. Examples may be incorrect and/or not related to arguments. Very little structure. Poor quality writing.

Bad fail 0-29%

An utterly inadequate account. W ork not even of A-level standard. Topic not engaged with in any obvious way. Very limited material, much of which not relevant to the topic. N o evidence of reading or of understanding. Incoherent. Poorly written.

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A bibliography of guides to student writing I have added a few comments in italics after some of the references. T his is not a comprehensive list, just some sources that I think that you will find useful.

Specialist writing guides

Clanchy, J & Ballard, B (1983) H ow to W rite Essays: A Practical Guide for Students. Longman Cheshire. Melbourne. Victoria. Collinson, D, Kirkup, G, Kyd, R & Slocombe, L (1993, 2nd edn) Plain English. O pen University Press. Buckingham. I think that this is one of the least intimidating books on basic grammar and expression.

Creme, P & Lea, M R (1997) W riting at University: A Guide for Students. O pen University Press. Buckingham. Both these authors have researched extensively into student writing and their guide is based on solid research evidence.

Elbow, P (1981) W riting with Power: Techniques for M astering the W riting Process. O xford University Press. O xford. Peter Elbow favours a free and easy start to writing. If preparing the plan frightens you, then try this book’s advice.

Fairbairn, G & W inch, C (1991) Reading, W riting and Reasoning: A Guide for Students. Society for Research into H igher Education and O pen University Press. Buckingham. Flower, L (ed (1989, 3r d edn) Problem Solving Strategies for W riting. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. San Diego. Linda Flower is another well known researcher into student writing. She advocates a far more structured approach than Peter Elbow.

Hay, I (1996) Communicating in Geography and the Environmental Sciences. O xford University Press. Melbourne. Geography’s own specialist writing text. Johnson, R (1994, 5th edn) W riting Essays: Guidance N otes for Students. Clifton Press. Manchester. Parsons, T & Knight, P G (1996) H ow to D o Your D issertation in Geography and Related D isciplines. Chapman & H all. London.

Sociology W riting Group (1994) A Guide to W riting Sociology Papers. St Martin’s Press. N ew York. T homson, A (1996) Critical Reasoning: A Practical Introduction. Routledge. London. W illiams, K (1996) Essential W riting Skills. Developing W riting Paper 1. O xford Centre for Staff Development. O xford Brookes University. O xford. W illiams, K (1996) W riting Essays. D eveloping W riting Paper 5. O xford Centre for Staff D evelopment. O xford Brookes University. O xford.

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General study guides with chapters on writing

Barnes, R (1992) Successful Study for D egrees. Routledge. London. Chapters 6, 8 & 9. Burdess, N ( 1991) The H andbook of Student Skills. Prentice H all. Sydney. Chapter 3. Chambers, E & N orthedge, A (1997) The Arts Good Study Guide. O pen University Press. Milton Keynes. Chapters 4 & 5. Dunleavy, P (1986) Studying for a D egree in the H umanities and Social Sciences. Macmillan. Basingstoke. Chapters 4 & 5. Kneale, P (1999) Study Skills for Geography Students: A Practical Guide. Arnold. London. N orthedge, A (1990) The Good Study Guide. Open University Press. Milton Keynes. Chapters 5 & 6. N orthedge, A, Thomas, J, Lane, A & Peasgood, A (1997) The Sciences Good Study Guide. O pen University Press. Milton Keynes. Chapter 9. Rowntree, D (1988, 3 rd edn) Learn H ow to Study. Macdonald O rbis. London. Chapter 9.

W eb sites on student writing

Bill D aley’s W riting Page: http://www.cougar.vut.edu.au/~dalbj/

Geography for the N ew Undergraduate. Liverpool H ope University College. Student Help Pages at: http://www.livhope.ac.uk/gnu/stuhelp/intro.htm A wide range of study skills covered. Specific writing skills: literature search, referencing, essay writing and writing to a brief.

Learning Skills Program. University of Victoria (British Columbia) A wide range of study skills covered. Specific writing skills: writing essays and reports; writing theses and dissertations.

Home page at : http://www.coun.uvic.ca/learn/

O n-Line W riting Lab. D akota State University. http://www.dsu.edu:80/departments/liberal/cola/O W L/

O n-Line W riting Lab. Purdue University. http://www.owl.english.purdue.edu/

Study Skills. Department of Civil Engineering. University of Bradford. http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/civeng/skills/essays.htm

W riter’s Handbook: Academic W riting. University of W isconsin. http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/AcademicW riting.html

W riter’s W eb. University of Richmond Virginia. http://www.urich.edu/~writing/wweb.html

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1. Tips on resources and settings for writers T his might seem to be an odd topic for suggestions on writing. You might even wonder exactly what this section is about. I hope that the suggestions will make this clearer. At university you will do more writing than you did in your sixth form or college, so getting well prepared for this is a sensible move.

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H and writing or word processing?

You will be expected to word process your work from early in your undergraduate days, so the sooner you master word processing, assuming it is still rather unfamiliar, the better. I think that whether you use a word processor or a pen or pencil for working towards the drafts of your essay or written assignment is a matter of personal preference. The important thing is to feel comfortable and to be ready to cross out or delete rough work that you feel has no further use. Some students seem very reluctant to use the delete function on their word processors, quite possibly because they can write twenty or thirty words a minute faster by using a pen rather than a word processor. So they hate to cut out what has taken them so long to write. O ne clear advantage of using a pen or pencil for writing drafts is that you can do this in almost any setting.

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Get and use a good dictionary

A good dictionary is invaluable. It will help you with the meanings of words and with spelling. A spell checker will only tell you whether there is a word spelled as you have written. It does not tell you if you have chosen the correct word. Get into the habit of looking words up in the dictionary. Probably the best dictionary to use is The Concise Oxford D ictionary.

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Get and use a Thesaurus

A T hesaurus is a type of dictionary that lists words that are similar in meaning. T his is useful when you want to avoid using the same word over and over again. It allows you to maintain interest in your writing. T here is a Thesaurus in most word processing packages, but this does not really give you the full variety and richness that you get with a paper based version. A T hesaurus is a very useful and painless way to expand your vocabulary. T here is a very good T hesaurus published by Penguin Books in paper back.

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Get and use a subject dictionary

A good subject dictionary can be invaluable. It will help to remind you of the meanings of key terms in the discipline and of how some terms in ordinary language have special meanings when used in the discipline. Good dictionaries also often say something of the intellectual ancestry of the terms and concepts and contain a bibliography to guide your further reading. Rather than looking up words in an ordinary dictionary, use a subject dictionary. H uman geographers have a superb dictionary: Johnston, R J, Gregory, D and Smith, D M (2000, 4th

edn) The D ictionary of H uman Geography. O xford: Blackwell.

Physical geographers are perhaps less well served by their equivalent dictionary, which has far less on concepts and theories but instead concentrates on simple terms and their definitions. You need a dictionary that will serve you for the three years of your study, so avoid the dictionaries that are aimed at sixth form and first year undergraduates.

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Consider buying and certainly use dictionaries from related subjects

Geography is almost an inter-disciplinary activity and so geographers often use terms and concepts from other disciplines. You will need to be as familiar with these terms and concepts as you are with those that might be regarded as geographical. A general dictionary of environmental science or of social science could be a very useful addition to your writing resources. A number of years ago two very useful general dictionaries of the wider intellectual landscape were published. I found, and continue to find them of great help: Bullock, A, Stallybrass, O & T rombley, S (eds) (2000, 3rd edn) Fontana D ictionary of M odern Thought. London: Fontana

Bullock, A & W oodings, R B (eds) (1983) Fontana D ictionary of M odern Thinkers. London: Fontana.

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Where do you write best?

This too is a matter of personal preference. There are several important things to consider in choosing a place to do your writing:

you must be comfortable you must have space enough to keep your notes, your drafts and other writing resources you must be able to avoid distractions and interruptions

If you do not know where you write best, find out and then stick to the place where it all seems to work best. Be careful that you do not become obsessed by work settings. You should be able to do some writing tasks in several settings, though I suspect that you will always have some preferences for particular tasks in particular places.

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1.7

Join or form a writing group

Your fell...