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Tourism Revision NotesDLE 1 – Key concepts and modelsLeiper’s Tourism System (1990)Butlers Lifecycle (1980)The stakeholders Visitors and community  Tourism operators and suppliers  Local government  Local tourism orgs  Regional tourism orgs  State + national tourism industry council  State + ...

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Tourism Revision Notes

DLE 1 – Key concepts and models Leiper’s Tourism System (1990)

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Where tourists are coming from – different for each dest -

They all have in common: disposable income + time

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Now becoming dest in itself e.g. cruise ships + airports such as Dubai

The stakeholders       

Visitors and community Tourism operators and suppliers Local government Local tourism orgs Regional tourism orgs State + national tourism industry council State + national tourism org

Role of national tourism org

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Theming and branding Facilitation of exchanges between industry elements (Middleton, 2013) Quality control + assurance e.g. training Infrastructural improvements e.g. flagship projects + grants / subsidies PROMOTION, DISTRIBUTION + PRODUCT

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Need to be accessible, appealing

Focusses on change in dest Will go through different stages where tourists number will generally increase + changes will happen in dest e.g. access, marketing, international companies, commodification Provide examples of dest in each stage Criticism – only theoretical e.g. Dubai doesn’t follow the trend Criticism – crisis will effect model There’s no set time frame

Butler’s lifecycle

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Exploration Allocentric / explorers

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No specific facilities

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Arrival of T have little significance

Involvement Facilities provided T + locals contact is high

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Initial advertising

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Tourist season emerges

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Govt/public agencies improve transport

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Development Heavy advertising Local involvement declines rapidly More up-to-date facilities Natural/cultural attractions dev Not all locals approve Regional/national involvement T exceed locals at peak times Imported labour used Mid-centrics (Plogs)

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Consolidation Rate of T increase will decline

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Econ tied to T

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Major franchises represented

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Discontent among locals

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Stagnation Capacity levels reached/exceeded Env, social, econ problems Surplus bed capacity Area established but not in fashion Resort image divorced from geo env Organised mass T / psychocentric

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Decline No longer appeals to vacationers

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Rejuvenation Never reached without change in attractions e.g. Atlantic City

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Property turnover will be high

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Uses incorporates man-made attractions like gambling

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More tourist facilities disappear

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Take advantage of untapped natural resources e.g. Spa towns

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Local involvement increases

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Combined govt and private efforts are necessary

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Lower prices

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New market may not be allocentric

Criticisms of the lifecycle Not all areas experience stages of the cycle as clearly as others e.g. instant resort e.g. Cancun Exploration and involvement phases are of minimal significance + dev starts the cycle  Area may become unattractive long before capacity levels are reached  Intervention of war, disease, or other catastrophic events would see immediate decline in T

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Hayward – measurement issues and operational ambiguity must be overcome Leiper – should be assigned to archives of history as former theory, now discredited, shown to be false

Conceptual model of dest competitiveness (Ritchie and Crouch 2005)

Dest Image (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991)

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Push factors: personal needs and motives for travel Pull factors: attractions of the dest (Crompton, 1979)

Plog’s (1974) psychographic traveller types

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Explains why dest areas rise + fall in popularity

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4 Types of travellers (Cohen, 1972) Institutionalised

 NonInstitutionalised

Bell curve – majority of population sit in middle

Familiarity

Organised mass tourists – e.g. package hol + contact with host community is minimal Indv mass tourist – use similar facilities to org mass tourist but desire other sites not covered on org tours Explorers – arrange travel independently + want experience of social + cultural lifestyle of dest

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Drifters – no contact with other tourists or accom + wish to live with host community

Psychographic typology of Greek tourists (Wickens, 1998)     

Novelty

Cultural heritage seeker – history, heritage, authentic life e.g. older families Raver – sensual hedonism, nightlife e.g. cheap holidays generic Shirley Valentine – romantic experience with Greek god e.g. repeat trips, getaway Heliolatrous – sun and swim Lord Byron – annual repeaters with Greek friends + want authenticity

Poon (1993) Old and New Tourist Consumers

Technology

Production

Management

Frame conditions

Old Get sunburnt Inexperienced Security in numbers Unfriendly Users limited Stand alone Competition through price Econs of scale Vertical + horizontal integration Labour is cost of production Maximise capacity Sell what is produced Regulation Economic growth Uncontrolled growth

Determinants of tourism demand

New Keep clothes on Mature Want to be different Talk to each other All players are users Many integrated technologies Competition through innovation Econs of scale and scope Diagonal integration Labour is key to quality Manage yield Listen to consumers Deregulation Restructuring Limits to growth

Summary of DLE 1 concepts

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Leiper’s Tourism System (1990) Butlers lifecycle 1980 Facilitation of exchanges (Middleton, 2013) Conceptual model of dest competitiveness (Ritchie and Crouch 2005) Dest Image (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991) Push and Pull factors (Crompton, 1979) Plog’s (1974) psychographic traveller types 4 Types of travellers (Cohen, 1972) Psychographic typology of Greek tourists (Wickens, 1998) Poon (1993) Old and New Tourist

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Industry best viewed as system of interrelated + independent components Dest evolution understood through lifecycle –predicts impacts + inform dest management strat Places are dest brands + brand positioning is important in influencing tourist behaviour Many factors influence T demand e.g. macro + micro Psychographic segmentation is widely used method of categorising tourists + supports product dev

DLE 1 – SEMINAR Tourism

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1 of largest + fastest growing econ sectors, 6 th in international trade, 1 st in service sector 10% of global GDP + 30% of world’s exports of services

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1 in every 11 jobs, world’s top job creator Is main export for 1/3 of developing countries In some developing countries e.g. SIDS, tourism accounts for over 25% Destination

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T dest is a geographical unit visited by Ts – whether self-contained resort, town or country Psychographics Plog’s 1974 typology theory

Psychocentric  Like familiar  Package travellers  Low novelty  Resort choice  Activity level low  Car travellers

Allocentrics  Go native  Independent  Seek novelty  Off beaten track  Activity level high  Air travellers

T is largest + most globally encompassing industries + offers econ benefits that serve as impetus for govts to adopt T as means of development  Int T has 3 major components - Transport - Accom - Visitor attractions  Int T is influenced by - Tourism demographics and motivation - Fashion, technology, exchange rates  Managed unsustainably, T has range of negative impacts e.g. env, social, econ + psychological 

DLE 2 – Sustainable development, sustainable tourism, Ecotourism, The Green Economy Sustainable development -

 Bruntland Report 1987 Placed concept of sus dev centre stage + promoted it as vehicle for deliverance Based on concept: we don’t inherit earth from our forefathers but borrow from children Report written to unite countries to pursue sustainable development together  Sus dev: meeting needs of present without compromising ability of future generation to meet their own needs

Establishing ecological limits + more equitable standards Requires promotion of values encouraging ecologically possible consumption standards Redistribution of economic activity Meet essential needs – depends on achieving growth potential + sus dev requires econ growth to meet needs  Population control – ensure distribution of resources. Sus dev only pursued if demographic developments in harmony with changing productive potential of ecosystem  Conservation of basic resources + doesn’t endanger natural systems  Equitable access to resources + increased tech to use them effectively  Ultimate limits – ensure equitable access to continued resources before limits are reached  Carrying capacity + sustainable yield  Most renewable resources are part of complex + interlinked ecosystem + max sustainable yield must be defined after taking into account system-wide effects of exploitation  Retention of resources  Sus dev needs rate of depletion of non-renewable resources to be minimised  Diversification of the species + conservation of plant/animal species  Minimise adverse impacts Sus dev requires impacts on quality of air, water etc. are minimised  Community control over development decisions affecting ecosystems  Broad national / international policy framework Biosphere is common home to humans + joint management of biosphere is prerequisite for global pol security

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Millennium Development Goals 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Eradicate extreme poverty + hunger Achieve universal primary education Promote gender equality + empower women Reduce child mortality Improve maternal health Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria etc. Ensure environmental sustainability Develop global partnership for sus dev

Sustainability Issues

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Rising world population + growing tourism sector Food produced by unsustainable use of water Species at risk CO2 emissions Rich countries consuming earth’s resources Poverty

Sustainable tourism  

Applicable to all forms of tourism is all types of dests e.g. mass and niche tourism Sus refers to env, econ and socio cultural aspects of T dev + need balance between 3 dimensions

Sustainable Tourism Development Criticism         

Different perspectives An oxymoron Sustainability is a fuzzy concept Gaps between policy and application No attention paid to tourism demand Challenges – effective partnership among different stakeholders Determination of absolute level – a problem Pace of development – a problem Nothing is sustainable

Principles behind sustainable tourism (Bramwell et al. 1996)        

Policy, planning and management Not anti-growth but limitations to growth Long term Environmental economic + social Satisfying human needs with equity + fairness Consultation + empowerment in tourism decision making Stakeholder power – public / private Resource conflicts – compromise

Ecotourism

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 Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the env + sustains the wellbeing of locals  Basic principles Minimise impact Build env + cultural awareness + respect Provide positive experiences for visitors + hosts Provide direct financial benefits for conservation + empowerment for locals Raise sensitivity to host countries pol, env and social climate Support international human rights + labour agreements Avoids negative natural + cultural impacts that can damage integrity of env being visited Educates tourist on importance of conservation Direct revenues to conservation of natural areas + management of protected areas Bring econ benefits to locals + direct revenues to locals living adjacent to protected area Case for eco-tourism

Econ be - For l - For c

Scale of - Easi Knowled - Beh Raise aw - Beh

Case against eco-tourism

behave much as before hough they could still be behaving sensitively but ence over conscience

Wright 1993

Summary of ecotourism     

Growing area of tourism Eco T is an attractive proposition for govts Lack of regulation + enforcement Education needs to be orientated towards visitors cognitive + emotional state Clear links between econ development and conservation

Current sustainability issues for tourism          

Waste minimisation Energy efficiency, conservation + management Management of fresh water resources Waste water management Hazardous substances Transport Land-use planning and management Involving staff, customers, communities in environment issues Design for sustainability Partnerships for sustainable development

Impetus for change

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 Issues surrounding sustainable tourism are already affecting businesses: Resources (dests) Customers Costs Profitability

Green economy

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Results in improved human-wellbeing + social equity, while significantly reducing env risks + ecological scarcities UNEP, 2011

GE T Opps      

T has potential as growth driver for world economy T dev can be designed to support local econ + poverty reduction Investing in green econ can reduce energy, water + waste costs + enhance biodiversity, ecosystems + cultural heritage Tourists demanding greening of T Govt investments + policies can leverage private sector actions on GE Considered as potential approach to meet 2035 carbon mitigation scenarios

Emerging issues in GE

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 Behavioural challenges Environmental ethics Sustainable consumption Industry measures and awareness  Bioregional Emphasis on tourism at local scale (Welton, 2015) Creating stronger linkages with local econ + embedding within local natural + cultural heritage Implications for tourism sector  Socio-political Different perspectives Sufficiency approach: limit consumption to biophysical constraints Sharing needed  Capacity building and awareness raising National + int cooperation, research initiatives, mobilising funds, effective implementation to meet challenges Education + training to all Scientific info – simplified message – practical implementation w stakeholder involvement

10 Recommendations (Reddy 2013) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Appreciation of community-based skills + ways to make more use of local knowledge Added focus on vulnerable groups Govt funding, private sector investments + expertise need Improving energy + fuel efficiency Reducing water usage Recycling + reducing waste Moving towards green jobs Increasing awareness among tourists; encouraging tourists Efficient management + conservation of forests + other natural resources Regulations, setting standards + benchmarking

Summary of concepts 

Bruntland Report 1987, Bramwell et al. 1996, Wright 1993, UNEP, 2011, Welton, 2015. Reddy 2013

DLE 2 – SEMINAR – The Galapagos The Galapagos        

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Most unique ecosystem in the world + home to 5000 species, half are only found in G In the top ten Ecotourism Dests Tourist gaze in the Galapagos 100,000 visitors each year + is a world heritage site Tourists increased from 41k in 1990 to 180k in 2008 Number of domestic (Ecuadorian) visitors increasing but they are just going for the sun Growth in tourism related problems meant it was inscribed on list of world heritage in danger UNESCO ratified commitment to conservation of G providing technical assistance to achieve the management conditions to stabilize G UNESCO granted a scholarship to Ecuadorian student for doctoral studies on conservation T employs 70% of economically active population, raised $75m in 1998 but only 1% went towards conservation Only 3% of the islands set aside for human settlement 31% of residents are poor – shows trickle-down effect not taking place Butlers – saturated, Economic leakage – enclave tourism, Doxey’s irritation

Eco-tourism  

Hard ecotourism – emphasises an intense, personal and prolonged encounter with nature Soft ecotourism – characterised by short-term, mediated interactions with nature that are often just one component of a multipurpose tourism experience

Threats and challenges       

Shark fin fishing (Chinese demand) + overfishing of lobster and sea cucumbers Cruise ships Reliance on imports Pollution from boat paint, oil spills Growing human population – increased 300% in last few decades leading to overfishing Erosion of plants through tours Introduction of alien and invasive species e.g. rats from ships Greenwashing

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Green travel is current rage going from trend to mainstream consumer + corporate culture Greenwashers give appearance of eco-tourism (nature-based, learning focussed, env and socioculturally responsible) without substance of sustainability

Visitor Management system

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The directorate of the G National Park operates Visitor Management System to manage use of the protected areas of the NP and the G Marine Reserve Zoning Acceptable visitor load Tourist Monitoring Itineraries Recommendations to solve tourism issues Matoko & Castillo 2008

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Ensure open debate when determining social, econ + env dev policies with all stakeholders Need for specification on priority issues e.g. education, health, quality of life, natural habitats, biodiversity conservation. Need a common language for communication between researchers, students, teachers, politicians, decision makers, cooperation agencies + govt authorities to enable constructive exchange of ideas on full range of key issues Need for Integral Education Reform to offer special needs of local env International agencies should focus assistance on responding to plans + proposals of national govt that aim to achieve sustainable dev in the islands

What the Ecuadorian govt have done     

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1998 ‘Special Law for the Galapagos – limits immigration + appropriates 50% of revenues for conservation Econ measures – enhancement of enforcement capacity for Marine Reserve Introduction of certification and eco labelling program for fishery products Aerial patrols to stop illegal fishing Conflict resolution measures + participatory planning put in place to unite stakeholders Improved social cohesion and awareness

Principles of Management Plan             

Ecological Integrity Precaution Biophysical limits Better scientific knowledge Prevention Coordination Environmental Good living Rights of nature Adaptive management Participation Transparency Inclusiveness

Objectives of Management plan

Critically examine the key challenges of developing tourism in the Galapagos Islands in a sustainable manner Marketing Tourism in the Galapagos Islands: Ecotourism or greenwashing Ecotourism   

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Proposed land use changes should always be alert to the carrying capacity of local ecosystems Travel that included any aspect of nature Definition: A subset of sustainable tourism Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the env + improves the welfare of local pop

Principles of Ecotourism   ...