UGBA 105 Review sheet for exam 1 PDF

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Review Sheet for Exam 1 This is intended as a guide only. You are responsible for material from class and from the readings whether or not we explicitly discussed it in class. Intro to course: o What is a theory and how do theories and models work? Motivation and Learning: Ch 5 o The nature of learn...

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Review Sheet for Exam 1

This is intended as a guide only. You are responsible for material from class and from the readings whether or not we explicitly discussed it in class.

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Intro to course: o What is a theory and how do theories and models work? Motivation and Learning: Ch 5 o The nature of learning  Learning: a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience  Has to be a change  Relatively permanent (not something you forget right away)  Takes place as a result of practice or experience o Operant conditioning  Operant Conditioning: learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behavior and its consequences  B.F. Skinner created the theory  In working environment involves associating work behaviors (job performance, absenteeism, and lateness) with the consequences that will ensue in the employee’s environment o The ABCs of changing behavior  Antecedents  Anything that tells an employee about a desired or undesired behavior and its consequences  Behaviors  Desired or undesired  Consequences  Positive reinforcement o Positive consequences in response to performing a desired behavior  Negative reinforcement o Removing negative consequences in response to performing a desired behavior  Extinction o Removing whatever is currently reinforcing the undesired behavior o Relatively painless way to reduce the occurrence of an undesired behavior o Cannot be used to eliminate a highly undesirable or dangerous behavior in the workplace  Punishment o Administering negative consequences in response to performing the undesired behavior

When using punishment need to be careful to not create excessive hostility or negative feelings o Downplay the emotional element (punishing the undesirable behavior, not the person) o Make sure the employee knows why they are being punished o Avoid punishing an employee in front of others o When possible provide employees with a desired behavior in place of the undesired one Reinforcement: the process by which the probability that a desired behavior will occur is increased by applying consequences that depend on the behavior  positive (giving a good) or negative (taking away a bad)  keep in mind individuals differ in what they consider to be a positive consequence (a good)  important for the consequence to be equivalent in magnitude to the desired behavior  positive reinforcement works better than negative Reinforcement schedules  Continuous means the behavior is reinforced every time it occurs  Partial is reinforced intermittently  Fixed interval schedule: the period of time between the occurrence of each instance of reinforcement is fixed  Variable interval schedule: the amount of time between reinforcement varies around a constant average  Fixed ratio schedule: a certain number of desired behaviors must occur before reinforcement in provided  Variable ratio schedule: the number of desired behaviors that must occur before reinforcement varies around a constant average  Learning takes place only when the provision of a reinforcer depends on the performance of a desired behavior Shaping: the reinforcement of successive and closer approximations to a desired behavior Use shaping when it is unlikely a desired behavior will occur all at once OB MOD: organizational behavior modification; the systemic application of principles of operant conditioning for teaching and managing important organizational behaviors; implemented with a 5 step process  Identify the behavior to be learned  Should be used to encourage behaviors that can be observed and reinforced, are important for task performance and can be measured  Measure the frequency of the behavior  Get a baseline of how often it occurs before any intervention  Analyze the current antecedents and consequence of the behavior  Intervene to change the frequency of the behavior  Introducing new antecedents and applying operant conditioning techniques  Evaluate whether the intervention was successful in changing the behavior o

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Again measure the behavior frequency to determine if it has changed in the desired direction o Social cognitive theory: theory that takes in to account the fact that thoughts, feelings and the social environment influence learning (Albert Bandera) o Vicarious learning: learning that occurs when one person learns a behavior by watching another person perform the behavior  the learner observes the model perform a behavior, the learner observes the effect of the model’s behavior on the environment, and when the appropriate situation arises the learner imitates the model’s behaviors  conditions that must be met for vicarious learning to take place:  Learner must observe the model when they are performing the behavior  learner must accurately perceive the model’s behavior  Learner must remember the behavior  Learner must have the skills necessary to perform the behavior  Learner must see that the model receives reinforcement for the behavior  Can be used for employees to learn how to be creative  Can also be used to acquire behaviors that are complicated and have a high cost of failure  Managers should ensure that good performance models are available for newcomers and existing organizational members to learn from o Self efficacy: a person’s belief about their ability to perform a particular behavior successfully  Affects people’s learning because they will only try to learn the behaviors they think they will be able to complete successfully  The 3 ways self-efficacy affects learning  Influences the activities and goals that people set for themselves  Affects the level of effort that people exert performing the behavior  Affects the persistence with which people try to master new and difficult tasks  Sources of self-efficacy  Past performance  Vicarious experience  Verbal persuasion an individual’s reading of their own physiological state o Intrinsic motivation: behavior performed for its own sake; source of motivation is performing the behavior itself o Extrinsic motivation: behavior performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment  People can be intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated, or both The nature of work motivation: Ch 6 and 7. o Motivation and the relation between performance and motivation  Work motivation: the psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization, a person’s level of effort, and their level of persistence  Performance is the evaluation of the results of a person’s behavior (how well or poorly a person has accomplished a task or done a job)  Motivation is only one factor among many that contribute to a person’s performance 

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Other factors that affect performance: personality, ability, difficulty of the task, availability of resources, working conditions, and chance or luck The heuristic equations for performance and motivation Expectancy theory and its use Expectancy theory: a theory about work motivation that focuses on how employees make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort  how employees decide which behaviors to perform and how much effort to exert  Addresses 2 questions  Does the individual believe that their inputs will result in a given level of performance?  Does an individual believe that performing at this level will lead to obtaining the outcomes they want (pay, job security, feelings of accomplishments)  3 factors the determine an employee’s motivation  Valence: the desirability of an outcome to an individual o Positive valence means an employee prefers the outcome to not having it o Negative valence means prefers not having the outcome o Magnitude of valence is how desirable or undesirable an outcome is for an employee  Instrumentality: perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome o The perceived association between a certain level of job performance and the receipt of a specific outcome (scale of -1 to 1)  Expectancy: perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance o On a scale of 0 to 1 reflects the chances that putting forth amount of effort will result in a certain level of performance o Employees are motivated to perform desired behaviors at a high level only if they think they can do so o Similar to concept of self-efficacy  In order for an employee to be motivated to perform desired behaviors and to perform them at a high level:  Valence must be high  Instrumentality must be high  Expectancy must be high  If any of these factors is 0 motivation will be 0 Need theories and their use  Focuses on what outcomes individuals are motivated to obtain from their jobs or organizations  To determine which outcomes motivate employees, managers need to determine what needs employees are trying to satisfy  Need theory: a group of theories about work motivation that focuses on employees’ needs as a source of motivation 

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managers must ensure that the employees can satisfy their needs by engaging in behaviors that contribute to the organization’s effectiveness  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: humans have 5 needs that they seek to satisfy (physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization)  states that once a need is satisfied it is no longer a source of motivation  only one set of needs motivates behavior at any one time and it is not possible to skip levels  once one level of needs is satisfied the individual tries to satisfy the next level of the hierarchy  ERG Theory: existence-relatedness-growth theory  Has 3 types of needs instead of Maslow’s 5 o Growth needs: need for self-development and creative and productive work o Relatedness needs: needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open two-way communication o Existence needs: basic needs for human survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe environment  A higher level need can be a source of motivation even if a lower level need is not fully satisfied  More than one level of need can be a source of motivation at one time  when an individual is motivated to satisfy a higher level need but has difficulty doing so, the person’s motivation to satisfy a lower level need increases Equity theory: theory about work motivation that focuses on employees’ perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs  Outcome/input ratio: in the equity theory the relationship between what an employee gets from a job and what the employee contributes to the job  Theory relies on the employee’s perceptions of the reference’s outcomes and inputs that are compared to their own (not any objective measure)  Are the outcomes perceived to be at an appropriate level in comparison to the inputs?  Equity exists when an individual’s ratio equals that of the referent  Types of inequity:  Overpayment inequity  Underpayment inequity  Ways to restore equity:  Employee can change their input or outcomes  Employees try to change their referent’s input or outcomes  Employees can change their perception of their own or their referent’s input or outcomes  Employee can change their referent  Employees can leave the organization or force the referent to leave Organizational justice theory proposes that employees will not be motivated to contribute their inputs unless they perceive fair procedures will be used to distribute outcomes in the organization and that they will be treated fairly by their managers 

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Distributive justice: the perceived fairness of the distribution of outcomes in an organization (outcomes include pay, promotions, and desirable working conditions and assignments)  Procedural justice: the perceived fairness of the procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes in an organization  Likely to be high when employees have input into procedures used to determine distribution of outcomes and able to express their own views o Creating a motivating work setting o Job design o Scientific management o Job characteristics model o Social information processing model o Goal-setting Culture: Ch 17 o The definition of culture o The three levels of culture o How culture affects behavior o How one identifies a strong/weak culture o How culture is formed/created/managed 

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Decision-Making: Ch 15 (except for content on Group Decision-Making) o What are the basic types of decisions o The classical model of decision making o The behavioral model of decision making o Decision-making biases and how you might avoid using them...