Unit 3 Approaches - Lecture notes 1-10 PDF

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NAME – ANSHUL SINGH ROLL NO. – 18/UPOL/007 TOPIC – PRESENTATION ON APPROACHES TO PUBLIC POLICY STUDIES APPROACHES TO PUBLIC POLICY STUDIES

The following are the approaches to public policy studies:

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Rational choice theory is an important concept because it helps explain how individuals make decisions. According to Rational choice theory, every choice that is made is completed by first considering the costs, risks and benefits of making that decision. Choices that seem irrational to one person may make perfect sense to another based on the individual’s desires. What is Rational Choice Theory? Rational choice theory can apply to a variety of areas, including economics, psychology and philosophy. This theory states that individuals use their selfinterests to make choices that will provide them with the greatest benefit. People weigh their options and make the choice they think will serve them best. How individuals decide what will serve them best is dependent on personal preferences. For example, one individual may decide that abstaining from smoking is best for them because they want to protect their health. Another individual will decide they want to smoke because it relieves their stress. Although the choices are opposite, both individuals make these choices to get the best result for themselves. Assumptions of rational choice theory In order to fit the criteria for rational choice theory, the following assumptions are made.

1. All actions are rational and are made due to considering costs and rewards. 2. The reward of a relationship or action must outweigh the cost for the action to be completed. 3. When the value of the reward diminishes below the value of the costs incurred, the person will stop the action or end the relationship. 4. Individuals will use the resources at their disposal to optimize their rewards. Rational choice theory expresses that individuals are in control of their decisions. They don’t make choices because of unconscious drives, tradition or environmental influences. They use rational considerations to weigh consequences and potential benefits. Applications of rational choice theory Rational choice theory has a wide variety of applications in all types of spheres affecting human populations. •

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Economics and business: Rational choice theory can explain individual purchasing behaviours. Politics: Rational choice theory can be used to explain voting behaviour’s, the actions of politicians and how political issues are handled. Sociology: Rational choice theory can explain social phenomena. This is because all social change and institutions occur because of individual actions.

When there’s a need to describe, predict and explain human behaviour, rational choice theory can be applied.

NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT(NPM) New Public Management (NPM) is an approach to running public service organizations that is used in government and public service institutions and agencies, at both sub-national and national levels. The term was first introduced by academics in the UK and Australia to describe approaches that were developed during the 1980s as part of an effort to make the public service

more "businesslike" and to improve its efficiency by using private sector management models. As with the private sector, which focuses on "customer service", NPM reforms often focused on the "centrality of citizens who were the recipient of the services or customers to the public sector". NPM reformers experimented with using decentralized service delivery models, to give local agencies more freedom in how they delivered programs or services. In some cases, NPM reforms that used e-government consolidated a program or service to a central location to reduce costs. Some governments tried using quasi-market structures, so that the public sector would have to compete against the private sector (notably in the UK, in health care). Key themes in NPM were "financial control, value for money, increasing efficiency ..., identifying and setting targets and continuance monitoring of performance, handing over ... power to the senior management" executives. Performance was assessed with audits, benchmarks and performance evaluations. Some NPM reforms used private sector companies to deliver what were formerly public services. While NPM approaches have been used in many countries around the world, NPM is particularly associated with the most industrialized OECD nations such as the UK, Australia and the USA. NPM advocates focus on using approaches from the private sector – the corporate or business world–which can be successfully applied in the public sector and in a public administration context. NPM approaches have been used to reform the public sector, its policies and its programs. NPM advocates claim that it is a more efficient and effective means of attaining the same outcome. In NPM, citizens are viewed as "customers" and public servants are viewed as public managers. NPM tries to realign the relationship between public service managers and their political superiors by making a parallel relationship between the two. Under NPM, public managers have incentive-based motivation such as pay-for-performance, and clear performance targets are often set, which are assessed by using performance evaluations. As well, managers in an NPM paradigm may have greater discretion and freedom as to how they go about achieving the goals set for them. This NPM approach is contrasted with the traditional public administration model, in which institutional decision-making, policy-making and public service delivery is guided by regulations, legislation and administrative procedures.

NPM reforms use approaches such as disaggregation, customer satisfaction initiatives, customer service efforts, applying an entrepreneurial spirit to public service, and introducing innovations. The NPM system allows "the expert manager to have a greater discretion". "Public Managers under the New Public Management reforms can provide a range of choices from which customers can choose, including the right to opt out of the service delivery system completely". Aspects NPM was accepted as the "gold standard for administrative reform" in the 1990s. The idea for using this method for government reform was that if the government guided private-sector principles were used rather than rigid hierarchical bureaucracy, it would work more efficiently. NPM promotes a shift from bureaucratic administration to business-like professional management. NPM was cited as the solution for management ills in various organizational context and policy making in education and health care reform. The basic principles of NPM are the following: ManagementBecause of its belief in the importance and strength of privatizing government, it is critical to have an emphasis on management by engaging in hands-on methods. This theory allows leaders the freedom to manage freely and open up discretion. Performance standardsIts critical to preserve express measures and measures of execution in a workforce. Utilizing this strategy advances clarification of goals/intent, targets, and markers for movement. Output controlsThe third point acknowledges the "shift from the use of input controls and bureaucratic procedures to rules relying on output controls measured by quantitative performance indicators". This aspect requires using performance based assessments when looking to outsource work to private companies/groups. DecentralizationNPM advocates frequently moved from a bound together administration framework to a decentralized framework in which directors pick up adaptability and are not constrained to organization restrictions.

ELITIST THEORY Elite - An individual or group of individuals who are superior in terms of quality, ability and access of resources than to the general masses. They try to impose their hegemonic rule over the common masses in all the respective fields which affects the day to day life of masses, it may be political, economic or Social. The theory posits that a small minority, consisting of members of the economic elite and policy-planning networks, holds the most power—and that this power is independent of democratic election. Through positions in corporations or on corporate boards, and influence over policy-planning networks through financial support of foundations or positions with think tanks or policydiscussion groups, members of the "elite" exert significant power over corporate and government decisions. The basic characteristics of this theory are that power is concentrated, the elites are unified, the non-elites are diverse and powerless, elites' interests are unified due to common backgrounds and positions and the defining characteristic of power is institutional position. Changes of regime, revolutions, and so on occur not when rulers are overthrown from below, but when one elite replaces another. The role of ordinary people in such transformation is not that of initiators or principal actors, but as followers and supporters of one elite or another. Michels's theory states that all complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies. Michels observed that since no sufficiently large and complex organization can function purely as a direct democracy, power within an organization will always get delegated to individuals within that group, elected or otherwise. Mosca divided the society into ruled and the ruler. They have access and power in terms of two types of resources 1. Financial Resources- related to monetary acquisition and entitlement. 2. Non-Financial Resources- Hegemonic rule through concrete imposition of social values or norms or customs like caste, religious priests and preachers, through muscle power, etc. Three 'C' theory which defines the nature of elite 1. Cunning. 2.Conspiracy. 3. Consistency

In a representative democracy , the elitism is institutionalized through the mechanism of representation because in democracy like India 130 crore people cannot sit together and decide the matter best for them so here the radical theory of democracy given by J.J.Rousseau which held that only the direct democracy could be the best mechanism to raise the voice of the masses becomes obsolete. Public policy is called the idea of elite and even the implement executes and evaluate it according to this theory the role of masses is just follow their guidelines. PLURALISM Pluralism is a term used as an “doctrine of multiplicity “in beliefs of institution and societies often used in opposition of “Monism”. Pluralism began as a philosophy which argued that reality cannot be explained by one substance or principle. Similarly, political pluralism recognizes the existence of diversity in social, institutional and ideological practices, and values that diversity. Line of conflict are continuous and shifting of power and continuous barraging between competing group. Group of people try to maximize their interest. Pluralist stress on civil rights, Freedom of expression’s and organisations and electoral system with the two parties. Pluralism is multipolar or multicentral & articulated by higher authority. Accommodation is the prime focus in pluralism no one can bargain on that. Pluralism opposes elite ’s theory and tells that democracy can coexist taking aside the conservative elite approach. It believes in rationality among the people. For e.g., Multiculturalism, group rights or tribal rights. It talks about inclusionary public policy and primary ethos of democracy e.g., equality, justice and liberty....