Unit 3- English for Tourism PDF

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UNIT 3- ENGLISH FOR TOURISMLECTURE 1General EnglishGeneral English = Essential English: Basic elements of the language (vocabulary and grammar rules) Common core of the English language BUT nobody needs General English → everybody has their own specific needs ESP: English for Specific/Special Purpos...

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UNIT 3- ENGLISH FOR TOURISM LECTURE 1

General English General English = Essential English: 1) Basic elements of the language (vocabulary and grammar rules) 2) Common core of the English language BUT nobody needs General English → everybody has their own specific needs

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ESP: English for Specific/Special Purposes •English in use within more restricted social or professional areas, e.g. “legal English”, “business English” etc. •Four characteristics of ESP: 1) meeting specified needs 2) related in content to particular disciplines 3) centred on appropriate language 4) in contrast to general English

Characteristics of LSPs LSPs = Languages for Specific (or Special) Purposes or domainspecific languages ↓ -The result of diatypic variation = contextual-functional variation -Contextual-functional varieties of the language, functional language varieties used in specific domains of civil, professional and institutional life and associated with specific topics and disciplinary fields •Defined with reference to the professional, disciplinary or technical field to which they pertain (e.g. the language of the law, of medicine, of economics…) •No special grammatical or phonological rules BUT •Tendency to give preference to certain morpho-syntactic forms, used with abnormal frequency ↓ •Specialised lexicon/Specific vocabulary → main feature, most distinctive trait of LSPs •LSP research → initially focused on specialised lexicon → then, research on textual and rhetorical organisation → increased awareness of the complex factors involved in the use of LSPs

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LSPs – Proliferation of terms •Special Languages (De Saussure) → used to refer to legal language, scientific terminology, etc. – languages with special rules and symbols deviating from those of general language

E.g. English for Academic Purposes (EAP) •EAP, “English for Academic/Research Purposes”, is a branch of ESP → “It is usually defined as teaching English with the aim of assisting learners’ study or research in the language” •Members of the academic community (professors, researchers, students, etc.) share a common knowledge of the rules and conventions of academic discourse → they use a particular vocabulary, particular grammar structures, a particular register, and they share norms and assumptions, which make communication within the academic community more efficient and effective •A face-to-face lecture, a monographic book, a journal article are all texts produced within the wider domain of academic discourse

Theoretical Issues 1) Discourse / Discourse Analysis 2) Genre 3) Register 4) Text type

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Discourse •There is no universal agreement on the exact definition of the notion •Discourse is: -“language above the sentence or above the clause” -a continuous stretch of spoken/written language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit -a stretch of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive; language in use -viewed as social practice → bidirectional relationship between discourse and social processes SOCIOLINGUISTICS → the study of language and linguistic behaviour as influenced by social and cultural factors

Discourse Analysis (DA) •Discourse analysis (DA) = the study of whole units of communicative exchanges produced in a particular speech community •Focus on both spoken texts and written texts •Focus on both language form and language function → discourse analysis is concerned with language use in social contexts, it studies language in context •DA stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social interactive phenomenon •Meaning is not conveyed by single sentences but by more complex exchanges, in which participants’ beliefs and expectations, the knowledge they share about each other and about the world, and the situation in which they interact play a crucial part •Discourse Analysis (DA) is a collection of methods for studying language in actual use in social contexts → emphasis on texts and not just on single words

Tourism Discourse •English for Tourism is another branch of ESP •Tourism discourse is a type of discourse in its own right → there are certain practices, norms and values that are conventionalised in the way we use language and other expressive means in order to talk about tourism-related matters •In the tourism industry, the language of tourism plays a decisive role in determining the success or failure of certain trends and the popularity of certain destinations •Tourism is grounded in discourse (pagg. 33-34) 4

LECTURE 2

Genre Genre = “A class of communicative events sharing a set of communicative purposes established and recognised by a specific discourse community and exhibiting similar patterns in terms of structure, style, content and intended audience” •The classification of texts into genres derives from the way in which “texts are perceived, categorized and used by members of a community” •Genre Analysis focuses on elements of recurrent language use (grammar, lexis, rhetorical practices), thus connecting texts with the communities in which they are used EXAMPLE= Guidebooks, apps, travel articles, travel blogs, trip reports, tourism advertisements are all examples of genres, and so are recipes, personal letters, textbooks, reviews…

Register Registers = different code varieties available to the speaker who can choose the most suitable “level” and variety of language for a given communicative act, with variations in lexico-grammar as well as in style → register imposes constraints at the linguistic level (esp. vocabulary and syntax) ≠ genre (operating at the level of discourse structure) •Thus, register can be defined as a variety according to use (use-related variety) •A genre may have instantiations of different registers, and the same register can be used in different genres

Register vs Genre •‘Register is used when we view text as language: as the instantiation of a conventionalised, functional configuration of language tied to certain broad societal situations, that is, variety according to use [static and uncritical point of view]… •Genre is used when we view the text as a member of a category:…a grouping according to purposive goals, culturally defined [more dynamic and ideological point of view]’

Text type •Controversial notion •Text types cut across genres and registers → better defined in terms of internal linguistic characteristics of a text and of the function it performs •Genres are defined in terms of non-linguistic criteria (e.g. their communicative purposes). 5

•Text types can be defined in terms of linguistic and non-linguistic criteria •Text types can be seen as “cognitive categories” offering ways of conceptualising, perceiving and portraying the world •Rigid categorisations are not possible → a text made of pure text types (e.g. a totally narrative or descriptive text) cannot be found → one genre always makes use of several text types •Each text type is associated with or characterised by the presence of certain linguistic elements •There is a strong relationship between language, text function and the sociocultural expectations of text users •Numerous contributions on the study of text types •Egon Werlich proposed one of the best-known categorizations: (for further insights into research on text types, (21-32) •Werlich identifies: -description -narration -exposition -argumentation -instruction

Descriptive Text Type •Text that has the function of describing a person, a place, a scene etc. •The language is characterised by precise and carefully chosen vocabulary •Descriptive texts are common in literature and songs and, of course, tourism

Narrative Text Type •Text that has the function of telling a story or a fact •Narration is generally characterized by verbs in the past tense •Narrative text types include personal experience, fairy stories, adventure stories, mysteries, science fiction, horror stories, myths and legends

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Expository Text Type •Text that has the function of analysing/explaining phenomena •It presents either constitutive elements which can be synthesised into a composite concept, or those constituent elements into which concepts can be analysed •Dictionary definitions, entries in reference books, keyword outlines and summaries are common text forms belonging to the expository text type

Argumentative Text Type •Starting from the implicit or explicit statement of a problem, the text presents a major thesis, often in opposition to another thesis •The text is rich in evaluative language •Comments, interviews, leading articles and letters to the editor are common argumentative text forms –expository text type Related to the cognitive function of comprehension (i.e. meant to explain something –argumentative text type Related to the cognitive function of judging in answer to a problem (i.e. expressing opinions)

Instructive Text Type •The text aims to influence the reader’s or listener’s behaviour by advising or instructing him or her •Characteristic of instruction is the use of commands or recommendations and the present tense group of verbs •Rules and regulations are common text forms belonging to the type instruction

LECTURE 3

Genres of Tourism Discourse: Overview 1) Pre-trip promotional materials advertising, brochures, commercial and promotional websites, travel articles, travel blogs 2) On-trip informational materials tourist guidebooks, travel blogs, apps 3) Post-trip writing – feedback travelogues, trip reports, reviews, travel blogs 7

Advertising •Advertising is the paid, non-personal communication of information about products or ideas by an identified sponsor through the mass media in an effort to influence customer behaviour •Advertising is designed to: -create a distinctive image for the product -establish product superiority ↓ In simpler words, to persuade the consumer to buy the product

The Advertisement as a Hypergenre •Advertisements → generally thought to represent one single genre or text type → yet, there is huge variation: -handwritten ads, ads published in international magazines, radio and TV commercials, web ads… -ads pursue different purposes, though their function in society in relatively constant •Advertising is a hypergenre, encompassing various sub-genres •Print ad → mainly based on text until the XX century •Today, made up of a text and an iconic component, with a variable relation between the two

Formal Characteristics of Advertising 1) Multimodality  the combined utilisation of different semiotic resources/modes of communication within a single communicative process (textual, visual, aural resources-for radio and TV ads-)  working with multimodal texts implies the understanding of the interaction of different modalities and their grammars in the creation of meaning ↓ Interplay of different semiotic resources in the construction of messages → THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN VISUAL AND VERBAL MODES OF COMMUNICATION CONSTRUCTS COMPLEX LAYERS OF MEANING

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2) Succinctness/Conciseness  language of advertising → constrained by contextual factors, esp. space constraints  requirement to compress content  “linguistic ingenuity comes to the rescue”  slogans → instrumental in carrying out the argumentative and persuasive functions of ads

Advertising and Tourism •We all like to travel in different ways → for this reason, advertisements target different people with different discursive strategies •Professionals of the tourism industry, and in particular those working in marketing and promotion, know very well that there are different types of travellers and they try to appeal to them by different means

Authenticity, Strangerhood, Play or Conflict? •There are 4 major theoretical perspectives on tourism that can be related to certain linguistic elements: 1) the authenticity perspective → search for authentic experiences → tourist = sort of pilgrim → emphasis is laid on traditions, the past and current local life 2) the strangerhood perspective → focuses on the desire of the contemporary self who wants to see things that are different from his/her own reality and wants to do so in a more or less independent way → this perspective encourages travellers to distance themselves from their “centre” 3) the play perspective → tourism = play, a game in which popular pleasures and fun are the key concepts 4) the perspective of conflict and appropriation → the focus is on the contrast between societies → the model has been mostly applied to tourism in emerging countries

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Topics of Tourism •Tourism promotional material can be categorised according to the topic → several topics, often interrelated, can be found. •The topics of tourism are generally referred to with acronyms indicating commonly associated topics: -RRR→ Romanticism, Rebirth and Regression -HHH→ Happiness, Hedonism and Heliocentrism -FFF→ Fun, Fantasy and Fairy-tales -S(S)SS→ Sea, (Sun), Sex and Socialisation •These topics can occur together in a single text, they are not mutually exclusive

A Few Key Notions •HOW ARE THESE PERSPECTIVES AND TOPICS ENACTED BY LINGUISTIC MEANS? 1) keywords → they often convey primary information and are, therefore, generally short, clear and to the point → be they verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc., words evoke specific emotions and conjure up specific topics ↓ Evocative verbs + use of the imperative mood to create the “spell effect” (e.g. “escape”, “forget”, “change”, “discover”) 2) euphoria technique → use of positively connoted words (e.g. “extraordinary”, “great”, “amount”, “more”) 3) resorting to the “magic” is a very common device → the magic dimension is also built through specific lexical choices → e.g. names of attractions (Mirabilandia, Canada’s Wonderland) 4) ego-targeting → this technique has the function of singling out the reader from the crowd, thus making him/her feel unique, or at least privileged → characterised by the use of informal language and a conversational style 5) syntax → frequent recourse to parataxis and short, juxtaposed sentences (e.g. “This and more awaits you in Los Cabos. Where life is good. And dreams are realized.”) 6) frequent choice of verbs in the -ing form and use of the imperative mood → “Experience your own Renaissance!” / “Explore Colorado.” / “Experience the world’s most exciting in-flight entertainment.” / “Visit Greece.” / “Discover Sicily’s culinary delights!” 10

7) use of rhetorical questions → “What could be more rewarding than the vacation of your dreams? / Isn’t Bermuda full of high society?”

8) figures of speech: -rhyme → “Travel better. Cheaper. Longer.” -alliteration → “Relax, revive and revel in the largest tract of wilderness east of the Mississippi.” -parallelism → “Discover Los Cabos. Rediscover yourself. / Your Time, Our Place” (Ireland). -similes and metaphors → “Arrived in search of the ultimate break. Departed having found Paradise” (Australia). •All these strategies pursue the fundamental aim of promotional material, i.e. satisfying the AIDA condition→ capture Attention, maintain Interest, create Desire and get Action

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Official Website of Tourism Ireland LECTURE 4

Brochures •If ads are often the first contact between a location or attraction and prospective tourists, brochures generally come not much later in the “tourist cycle” → e.g. when a potential traveller contacts a Tourist Information Office, after having been charmed by an advertisement or some other sort of promotional material •Brochures can vary remarkably in format (paper or electronic, in full colour or black and white, having many pictures or a lot of text), style and purpose → some are meant to inform, others to attract, others to do both

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E-brochures

Brochures vs Ads •English used in brochures is somewhat similar to English used in ads

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•Sentences are generally simple, short and to the point → “Just minutes from the airport, the hotel is a short stroll from the Gaslamp Quarter, Horton Plaza, the Convention Center and beautiful San Diego harbor.” / “The Sun Hotel promises comfort and friendly, efficient service.” •They sometimes lack the verb and rely on adjectives and nouns to convey the relevant message → “The Sun Hotel: Comfortable and relaxed four-star hotel.” •Brochures generally contain more informational text compared to ads, because they also serve the purpose of providing “further information” about the attraction or destination at issue •Whereas ads have to fit in a limited space and the text must be restricted to a few effective keywords, brochures can count on more space → the attraction or destination can be promoted more profusely and useful information can be provided in addition (e.g. contact details)

The “Double Soul” of Brochures •The promotional function of brochures can be more or less prominent → Are there purely informative brochures? → all brochures also promote the product, attraction or destination at issue, at least indirectly •Brochures have a “double soul” → on the one hand, they promote attractions; on the other, they inform the reader about details of the attraction they feature •The amount of promotional vs. informative material depends on the brochure’s function

Brochures: A Highly Codified Genre •Like all the other genres of tourism discourse, brochures are highly codified •They tend to have a regular structure → or, at least, certain elements are always included in brochures: -they have slogans and images. -they have an informative section. •For instance, brochures are characterised by frequent recourse to collocations (esp. adjective + noun): -the use of certain words together / a particular combination of words (Merriam-Webster Dictionary) -a combination of words in a language that happens very often and more frequently than would happen by chance (Oxford Dictionary) -sequence of lexical items which tend to co-occur more often than would be expected by chance  mild climate, pleasant weather, countless possibilities, small paths, panoramic roads, old abbeys, ancient villages, dream landscapes, enogastronomic traditions, extensive cellar, awardwinning menu, amazing price, sumptuous interiors, sumptuous food, splendid mansions… 14

Collocations •They represent the habitual and recurrent juxtaposition of semantically related words •Words do not collocate together because of grammatical or semantic rules but because of their repeated usage •A distinctive feature of collocations is the unmotivated and unexplicable combination of their constituents Examples: -a long time ago (OK) -a short time ago (OK) -long ago (OK) -short ago (NO!)

•The systematic co-occurrence of words in language use (i.e. the co-occurrence of the two words has a higher frequency than normal) signals the presence of a collocation

•Repeated usage is what determines what is “right” and what is “wrong” (i.e. what sounds natural and what does not)

LECTURE 5

Guidebooks

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Guidebooks - Evolution of the Genre

•There are different types of guidebooks dealing with different types of activities •Unlike ads, brochures, promotional websites and travel articles, guidebooks should not be considered promotional material → guidebooks are meant to be reference material, with an informational rather than promotional purpose •Guidebooks vary remarkably in style and register, but they can be considered the least persuasive and the most univocal of the genres of tourism discourse •Why? Why don’t they share a promotional function with the other genres? → because readers/consumers have generally already made their choice •Guidebooks are situated at the core of the “tourist cycle” → they are generally used when the tourist is already at the destination or immediately before his/her arrival, indeed after a choice has been made ↓ •On-trip informational resource material 16

•However, since guidebooks vary in sty...