UNIT 3 Study Guide PDF

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Study guide for unit 3 professor Manda Williamson ...

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UNIT 3 Study Guide Ch 5: Learning Classical Conditioning. The Basics 1. Define learning. How is it different from habituation and sensitization?  Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors  Permanent change in behavior due to an experience  Result of experience  Habituation: there is a decrease in response to a stimulus after being repeatedly exposed to it “get used to it”  Sensitization: refers to the process of repeated exposure to a stimulus results in the increasing of strength of the reaction to the stimulus 2. Define classical conditioning and be able to identify the UCS, NS, CS, UCR, and CR in the example of “Pavlov’s Dog”  Classical condition: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction  We notice that two stimuli occur in a sequence, so we associate those stimuli with each other o Result: our natural response to one stimulus (the second one in the timeline of the two events’ occurrences) now can be triggered by the new, predictive stimulus  Unconditioned stimuli elicit a reflexive or unconditioned response o Ex. UCS= puff of air - - - UCR= blinking Pavlov’s Dog US: food CS: empty bowl NS: bell/empty bowl UC/CR Response: The Dog drooled Bowl reliably means that food is going to come Storm Example: o Stimulus 1: See lightning o Stimulus 2: Hear thunder- get scared o After repetition o Stimulus: See lightning

o Response: Cover ears to avoid sound even before it happens US (Unconditioned Stimulus): thunder UCR (Unconditioned response): should make one afraid because it is loud  NS (Neutral Stimulus): lightning- no response,  CS (Conditioned Stimulus): one realizes that with the lightning, the thunder follows  CR (Conditioned Response): covering ears when seeing lightning g 3. Now make your own example. Be sure to label each stimulus event and each response, knowing specifically which response is conditioned and which is unconditioned. o Stimulus 1: See lightning o Stimulus 2: Hear thunder- get scared o After repetition o Stimulus: See lightning o Response: Cover ears to avoid sound even before it happens  Learn to prepare for an event before it even happens, have control over the situation  

Associative

Classical: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction

Cognitive: acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience Observational

You don’t learn responses. Operant: changing behavior choices in response to consequences Produce response, stimulus that comes from environment = consequence  

Stimulus is what you can perceive, event that takes place around you Response: emotion, output from body, reaction, behavior

How Classical Conditioning Works and How to Undo It. 1. What type of real-world learning does classical conditioning account for?

Classical conditioning: an automatic or reflexive type of learning that occurs by making associations between different events and stimuli  Learning that occurs by associating two events that are repeatedly paired sot that you eventually respond to a neutral stimulus in the way that you responded to the naturally occurring stimulus  Drooling  Fear  Taste aversion  Indirectly from participants and noting their unconditioned responses  It accounts for overcoming phobias  Counter learning 2. Know how stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery occurs in classical conditioning and  Stimulus generalization: occurs when the conditioned response is elicited in response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus  Stimulus discrimination: occurs when the conditioned response is elicited in response to a specific conditioned response  Acquisition: strengthening phase between the neural stimulus and conditioned stimulus o What is Acquired: The association between a neutral stimulus and a conditioned stimulus o Acquisition has Occurred: The response gets triggered by a conditioned stimulus o Acquisition phase: the period of time during classical conditioning when the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response o The association between the neutral stimulus and the CR will be the strongest when the neutral stimulus is presented immediately prior to the UCS  Extinction: occurs when the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response  Spontaneous recovery: a return of the conditioned response despite a lack of further conditioning  After a CR has been conditioned and then extinguished: o Following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to a spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a lack of further conditioning) o If the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR becomes extinct again. Why we say the CR is usually suppressed 3. think of example of each of the terms listed in question 2. 

Stimulus generalization example: Little albert being afraid of a white rabbit because it looked like the white mouse  Stimulus discrimination example: in Pavlov’s studies, he was able to condition dogs to salivate in response to specific tones while not salivating to other similar tones  Acquisition example: the phase when the food and the metronome were repeatedly pairs and classical conditioning has occurred the first time the metronome was presented alone and lead to salivation.  Extinction example: if you change your ringtone for your mother, you will eventually stop having an emotional response when you hear the previous ring tone or after the metronome is repeatedly presented without food to the dogs, the salivation response will decrease  Spontaneous recovery example: if the dog stops repeatedly presented without food but hears the metronome a week later  Taste aversion: had an encounter with rotten fish, will never touch fish again 4. Describe how higher-order conditioning may have occurred with Pavlov's Dog  A conditioned stimulus could eventually act as an unconditioned stimulus in a second round of conditioning  Black square is paired with the metronome- the dog salivates  They are both conditioned stimuli- the dog relies on reliable memories to predict food  When higher order conditioning occurs o Metronome- CS 1 o Black square (higher order)- CS2 o Both elicit the same response  A new neutral stimulus predicts a conditioned stimulus 5. Describe how we should have used counter conditioning to help Little Albert get over his fear of the white rodent.  Watson tested “Little Albert” to see if emotional responses could be classically conditioned  Little Albert did not fear the presented objects, except for a loud noise o He was presented a white rat (neutral stimulus) 

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o Paired the rat with a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus)Albert reacted with fear o Conditioned response: fear Little Albert should have gone through extinction trial, but he began to generalize: o he was afraid of bunnies, Santa Claus, stuffed animals, and cotton balls Counter conditioning: the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits an incompatible response o Show Albert rat and then give him cookies o Give him another unconditioned stimulus o Suppress a conditioned response that is more adaptive o Goal: teach new/adaptive conditioned response

Operant Conditioning: The Basics 1. Define operant conditioning.  Learning related to voluntary behavior that occurs through the application of consequences after a particular behavior is performed o This happens after we voluntarily engage in a behavior o Is much more active and based on consequences that occur after a particular behavior is performed 2. Define positive and negative reinforcers and positive and negative punishers.  Positive reinforcer: something that strengthens or increases a response by adding a pleasurable consequence  Negative reinforcer: strengthening or increasing a response by removing an unpleasant consequence  Positive punishers: adding something undesirable after a behavior with the intention of decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future  Negative punishers: removing something desirable or enjoyable after a behavior with the intention of decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future  Anything that is a reinforcer produces a desirable outcome  Reinforcement increases behavior  Punishment: decreases or weakens a behavior 3. Give examples of positive and negative reinforcers and positive and negative punishers.  Positive reinforcer: money, stickers, candy, feeling of pride after compliment, feeling empowered, or donating blood  Negative reinforcer: rocking a baby to stop from crying, pick up dirty clothes to stop someone from nagging, getting rid of headache by

taking an asprin, the buzzer in your car stops after you fasten your seatbelt  Negative punisher: taking away video games after getting a bad grade on a test  Positive punishers: giving a spanking after using bad words, giving more chores 4. Define shaping.  Shaping: the use of reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired end behavior  The new behavior is achieved by using successive approximations or behaviors that are incrementally closer to the overall desired action  Chaining: a combination or series of responses performed in a particular order  Reinforcement of the successive approximations is used to shape the overall sequence of behaviors 5. Describe how to use a Token Economy.  Token economy: providing tokens (stickers, coins, points) for desired behaviors that can be exchanged for something rewarding  A token is considered a conditioned reinforcer because it becomes associated with a primary or secondary reinforcer

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o Getting a punch on your coffee card isn’t rewarding at first, but over time it becomes rewarding because it is associated with receiving a free coffee Initially developed as a technique to manage the behavior of patients in psychiatric wards by providing tokens for specific desirable behaviors such as daily selfcare, interacting with others in nonaggressive ways, and demonstrating responsibility Tokens could be exchanged for movies and well-located beds

6. What are the differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?  

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Both types of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalization are common to both Operant conditioning has reinforcement o Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors o Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior Classical condition relies on association between stimuli and responses o Involuntary reflexive behavior o Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex o Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

o Involves creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previously neutral one 7. Schedules of Reinforcement  Continuous: when a desired response is reinforces every time it occurs; this schedule results in rapid learning, but if the reinforcement stops, extinction also occurs rapidly o ex. if a rat suddenly stops receiving food every time it presses a bar, it will give up and stop pressing it o ex. when you push a button for elevator, you are rewarded by the elevator doors opening  partial reinforcement: when responses are only occasionally reinforced; this produces slower initial learning, but the learning is more resistant to extinction  fixed ratio schedules: when a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses; fixed rate schedules produces high rates of responding with only a brief pause following reinforcement  variable ratio schedules: reinforcing behavior after varying and unpredictable numbers of responses; have high response rates and produce behavior that is difficult to extinguish  fixed interval schedules: when a behavior is reinforced after a fixed time period; fixed interval schedules produce rapid responses at the expected time of reward and slower responses outside of those times  variable-interval schedules: reinforcing behavior after variable periods of time; generally, produce slow and steady behavioral responses Applications of Operant Conditioning 1. Know the benefits of continuous and intermittent reinforcement. Be able to identify examples of fixed ratio and interval reinforcement and variable ratio and interval reinforcement  Continuous reinforcement: the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs o Giving a reward after the target every single time- the subject acquires the desired behavior quickly o Benefits:  Intermitted (partial) reinforcement: occurs when responses are only occasionally reinforced o Giving rewards part of the time- the target behavior takes longer to be acquired/established but persists longer without reward o Benefits:  Fixed ratio: Every so many behaviors o High rate of responding  Ex. Buy two drinks, get one free? I’ll buy a lot of them  Variable Interval Reinforcement: unpredictably often

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o Slow, consistent responding  Ex. If I never know which day my lucky lottery number will pay off, I better play it every day. Variable ratio: After an unpredictable number of behaviors o High, consistent responding, even if reinforcement stops (resists extinction)  Ex. If the slot machine sometimes pays, I’ll pull the lever as many times as possible because it may pay this time. Fixed Interval Reinforcement: every so often o Slow, unsustain responding  Ex. If I am only paid for my Saturday work, I am not going to work as hard on the other days

Time passes Number of behaviors

Known stated

Unknown stated

Fixed interval

Variable interval

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

2. What is instinctive drift?  The tendency of an animal to revert to unconscious and automatic behavior that interferes with operant conditioning and learned responses that come with it 3. Know the differences between operant conditioning and classical conditioning (in each, which comes first: your behavior or an outside stimulus? In each, which produces a voluntary response, which produces a reflex?)  Classical conditioning: the stimuli that precede the behavior will vary to alter the behavior o Outside stimulus, then response  Operant: the consequences which come after a behavior will vary, to alter that behavior o Reinforcement or punishment o Positive or negative Cognitive Learning (Observational Learning) 1. Define insight learning and give an example.  Sudden realization of how to solve a problem that does not occur as a result of trial-and-error o Monkey using stick to get bananas 2. Know about the Bobo the clown study: who is the researcher responsible for describing Observational Learning? What is Observational Learning?  Observational learning: learning by observing and imitating others  BANDURA-Evaluating the nature of observational learning in children with respect to aggressive behavior

Three groups were children o One watched someone abuse the bobo doll- imitate adult hurting bobo o Watched the adult play with tinker toys ignoring bobochildren were less aggressive o Another playing in the room with no one touching bobo (control)  Children who observed the adult, behaved like the adult  To learn something by watching others, and individual must be paying attention to the model  Retention is the ability to encode and store the information so that it can later be retrieved from memory  Motor reproduction: you must be capable of reproducing the action that was observed for observational learning to be successful.  Motivation: the individual needs to be motivated to do so by some incentive 3. What does Observational Learning suggest about a potential cause of aggression?  Aggression could be caused by children viewing aggression 4. What do we learn about the relationship between previous incidences of violence and likelihood of committing violent acts as a result of playing VVGs (violent video games)?  There is evidence of a causal link between playing violent video games and aggressive behavior, aggressive conditions, and aggressive affect (or emotions)  They also found that violent video games were related to decrease empathy, desensitization to violence, and a reduction to prosocial behavior  CH 6: Memory Encoding and Strategies to Improve Studying and Committing Material to Memory 

1. Define memory.  Memory is our brain’s system for filing away new knowledge and retrieving previously learned information  Memory is a collection of information and experiences stored in our brain for retrieval at a later time  It is not always accurate  Learning and memory go together 2. Know the measures of learning: recall, recognition, priming and relearning.  Recall: involving pulling information directly from long-term memory without the help of any kind of retrieval cues  Recognition: Retrieval of information that occurs after seeing that correct answer provided among a group of possible answers

Priming: aspect of implicit memory involving presenting a stimulus that activates unconscious associations that then lead to a predictable response  Relearning: 3. Know the Attinksin-Shiffrin 3-Stage Model of memory and be able to define each component of those models. (REVEL calls it the “information-processing model” in  Information processing approach: general theory of memory stating memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved later when needed  Memory is like having a personal assistant o Files (memories) are put into specific filing cabinets and finds your stored files for when you need them, your memory encodes information, stores it away, and retrieves it for later use  Permanent/structural part of memory and the malleable part of memory  The three-memory stage model provides the structural foundation for our memory  Information from the external world is detected by our senses and first enters sensory memory for a very brief period of time  In order for information to be captured in sensory memory and progress to the next memory structure, we must pay attention to it. o The process by which the information is moved involves giving it the appropriate amount of attention  Short term memory, is a memory stage facility that has a slightly longer duration, but a lower capacity  Short term memory- - - working memory, a more complex shortterm memory store that contains different active systems and types of information  The primary process involved in moving memories from working memory to long term memory involves various active strategies such as repetition, making the information meaningful, and connecting it to some form of prior knowledge  Not all information in the working memory is going to be committed to long term memory  Long term memory has unlimited capacity, but only a small amount of information that crowds our sensory memory is eventually stores in our long-term memory 

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Three stage model assumes that one stage is completed at a time and that activities within which stage happen one at a time o Recognition memory (short term memory task where you must decide if you have seen a number of pictures before) is referred to as serial processing, but there is evidence that some of these processes can occur at the same time (parallel processing)

4. Define maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal and the assumption of the depth of processing model  Maintenance rehearsal: involves rehearsing the information over and over again in order to maintain it in short term memory o Ex. Memorizing a phone number  Elaborative rehearsal: an effortful processing strategy that focuses on elaborating on the information and making it personally meaningful o Visualize o Use mnemonics o Teach someone else o Organize information  Create a context for learning  Make hierarchies  Make concept maps out of terms that are related to each other o Te...