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HIST 1010 NOTES: UNIT FOUR Lecture #1: 11/09/17 In Review: Americas developed along similar lines as their counterparts in the Middle East, Eastern Mediterranean, and China - Yet the Americas stand in sharp contrast to these other civilizations o Vast webs of communication and trade linked the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean together o Even China, which was comparatively isolated, still participated in trade with the Near East through Silk Road o However, Americas developed along the same lines, even though they had little initial contact with the outside world American Empires - When we are talking about empires in the Americas, geographically, we are looking at areas in modern Mexico and South America o Two greatest of these empires are those of the Incas and the Aztecs o These empires built their own civilizations, empires, and advanced technology without any contact with Europe, Asia, or the Middle East The Origins of Empire - Small military chiefdoms created new weapons, modes of warfare, and transportation and conquered more territory o Military competition between these states paved the way for empire o These empires came much later in Americas than in Eurasia  Followed very similar patterns of social and political formation as those in Eurasia Militarism in the Mexican Basin - City-state of Teotihuacan became the cultural foundation of American civilizations and empire o After its collapse, smaller surrounding cities and city-states rose in prominence and power, undergirded by successful mining industries and widespread trade o The more militaristic Toltects took Teotihuacan culture and turned it into program of conquest - Riciopricty – Confucian ideal; something to do with this chapter Toltec Militarism - Toltecs were militaristic culture - Developed two important pieces of military technology: o Wooden sword with obsidian edges that could slash and crush o Obsidian dagger with handle - Also used traditional dart throwers and slings - Limitation was transportation; did not have wheeled vehicles - Economic survival relied upon trade in obsidian Tiwanaku and Wari - In area of modern Peru and Bolivia, around year 600 AD and concurrently with Toltec, two conquering city-states rose to power: o Tiawanaku in highlands of southern Peru and Bolivia o Wari in central Peru - Both city-states would represent a major step in formation of larger, militarily organized polities Tiwanaku vs. Wari Tiwanaku (600-1100 AD) Wari (600-1000 AD) Began as ceremonial center that grew into powerful Began as ceremonial center that grew into a powerful conquering state conquering state Located around Like Titicaca which provided abundant fish Paid for conquests by expanding agricultural production (i.e.: and terrace farming terrace farming) Members of all social classes brought together by Members of all social classes brought together by ceremonial feasts ceremonial feasts Relationship between elites and commoners was one of Relationship between elites and commoners was one of “reciprocity” – wherein commoners offered their communal “reciprocity” – wherein commoners offered their communal labor for construction of ceremonial centers and elaborate labor for the construction of ceremonial centers and feasting which was paid for by elite elaborate feasting which was paid for by elite Aztecs and Incas - Rise of their earlier conquering city-states gave way in early fifteenth century to vast empires of Aztecs and Incas

Growth of population and evolution of military of expanding city-states reached point where they transitioned to pattern of imperial political formation Aztec Empire (1300-1521 AD) - Founded in Mexican Basin as a city-state - Launched successful rebellion in 1428 against reigning city-state but in the Mexican basin - Local elites left in power but now required to attend religious ceremonies in the ceremonial center and capital at Tenochtitlan o Also had to bring and receive gifts, leave sons as hostages, and intermarry with elites - Commoners outside Tenochtitlan had to provide tribute to Aztecs in form of food and labor services o

Lecture #2: 11/16/17 Inca Empire (1438-1533) - Disintegration of Tiwanaku and Wari in the Andes occurred around 1100 AD o Led to rise of individual city-states in region around which great political and military leaders arose o One city-state – Cuzco – emerged in the fourteenth century as a regional power o Within one year, they would become a highly militaristic conquering force - Society held together by reciprocity but in the cast of power-enforced unilateralism o Inca society was divided into two halves with roughly equal reciprocities – from households to provinces o Most important social expression of reciprocity remained the feast Mit’a - Mit’a refers to mandatory public service in Inca Empire - Subjects were forced to farm, join military, take part in construction projects, and mine to pay their tax to the state - Most important contribution was in the area of military service o Inca military was one of the most powerful in the world In Review: in 600s AD, Romans (Byzantines) ruled over Middle East and North Africa, subsidizing local Arab leaders - Too much power was granted to local Arab leaders - See online - The Byzantines and Sasanid Persians were preoccupied with wars of conquests in 7th Century AD o Two Arab dynasties arose in succession: Umayyads then Abbasids - Both created Arab realm and then empire that, by the mid-eighth century, stretched from Iberia - See online The Reemergence of Empire - Muslim-Christian world that encompassed Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East was one of tension between two religious civilizations o 800-1050 AD: Muslims conquer lands in “holy wars” o 1050-1300 AD: Christians retaliate with “Crusades” - Christians wanted to reconquer Jerusalem – most sacred city for three monotheistic religions and most important city of Middle East – which had been conquered by Muslims in 1291 - Explored Atlantic Ocean for the first time, as people were “scared” of ocean - In the end, these empires move from commonwealths to imperial polities, once again Iberian Christian Expansion - Iberian Peninsula – Modern Spain and Portugal o Christians in Iberia aimed for “Reconquista” or reconquering Iberia from Muslims o 780 year period of Christians reconquering land taken over by Muslims - Portugal became dominant power in Iberia, followed by Castile-Aragon under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella o Caravels – ships built by Portuguese that was used to sail across ocean; stern rudder, square triangular sails o Compass and sextant allowed Portuguese to navigate ships King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella - King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile were the beginning of single political unit called Espana - Were known as the “Catholic Monarchs” – a title bestowed upon them by the Pope - Commissioned Christopher Columbus’ voyages - Religious reforms: better educated clergy - Forced out heresy

Spanish inquisition: body of clergy appointed by king and queen in 1481 to root out any people whose beliefs and practices were deemed to be violations of Christian theology and church law o Reforms helped Ferdinand and Isabella regain power o Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria – names of Columbus’s ships Rise of the Ottoman Empire - Muslim rule shrank in the Iberian Peninsula but expanded in the Balkans o Rose in response to decline in Byzantine Empire o Founded by Turkish warlord named Osman in 299 AD - Later conquered other provinces until they captured Byzantine capital at Constantinople under Mehmet II in 1453 AD o Constantinople’s name changed to “Istanbul,” becoming capital of Ottoman Empire Rise of the Habsburg Empire - Christian civilization that arose concurrently with the Ottoman Empire - Daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand married member of Habsburg dynastic family o Son of this union, Charles V, ruled Spain as well as Habsburg territories o Charles V given title of “emperor” from Pope – symbolic head of western Christianity - Habsburg and Ottomans renewed traditional Islamic-Christian imperialism Technology and the Centralizing State - Development and improvement of firearms sparked a revolution in empire building o Rulers created highly centralized states which were used to fund shift to firearm-bearing infantries o This sparked new conquests and an explosion in imperialistic ventures Firearms and Centralization - Firearms = expanding military - Early on, military commanders paid with “land grants” o Land was then farmed by villagers who generated rental income for the officers - After much conquest, rulers collected taxes in cash and then paid for regiments of personal guards to supplement regular armies o Creation of money economy - Ottomans and Habsburgs depended upon precious metals to finance imperial expansion and consolidation o Tax farming – Governmental auction of the right to collect taxes in a district  System dependent on strong central rulers for survival  System would deteriorate into various decentralized ruing kingdoms otherwise - Janissaries: troops who receive money from central treasury - Devsirme: young boys in Christian population converted to Islam to be trained as soldiers Ottoman and Habsburg Centralizing - Ottoman o Centralizing state reached its apogee under Sultan Suleyman I, the “Magnificent” o Period marked by financial explosion and expansion of military and bureaucracy  Bureaucrats recruited from two population groups:  Devsirme  Christians  College graduates from Instanbul  Muslims - Habsburg o Centralizing state reached its apogee under Charles V  Also relied upon tax farming and “head” taxes  Increased monetary income through mining operations in the Americas (Aztecs and Incas) o Period marked by financial explosion and expansion of military and bureaucracy -

The Renaissance, Baroque, New Sciences…and More War Rise of Western Christian Civilization - Followed same pattern of centralization as Middle Eastern and Asian civilizations - Culturally, however, moved in vastly different direction after 1500 o Was result of developments in science and philosophy o Math-related sciences started to be developed (i.e.: physics, astronomy, basis of engineering) - Focus increasingly turns from that of delegating Islamic civilizations to internal struggles over religion/politics Renaissance and Baroque Periods

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Periods marked by reawakening of interest in Greek and Roman culture, philosophy, and sciences o Renaissance Period (1400-1600) o Baroque Period (1600-1750) o New Sciences (1500-1800 but still affects present day) Renaissance Period - Period of cultural transformation that began in the 15th century following the scholastic Middle Ages o Scholasticism was a medieval method of deterring theological and philosophical truth by using Aristotelian logic o Period was marked by departure from Aristotle’s works to also include various Greek and Roman authors who had been unknown or ignored o Was spurred on by the invention of the printing press and literary revolution o Humanism: the intellectual movement focused on human culture and philosophy, philology, and literature; built upon Greek and Roman though  Philology: textual criticisms o Renaissance is focused on the brain and Baroque is focused on the body Baroque Period - Marked by a new artistic style that emphasized exaggerated motion and clear details to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in artistic expressions - Two factors influenced its emergence: o Religious reformations which changed the nature of patronage o Measurement, balance, and restraint of the Renaissance gave way to greater spontaneity and dramatic effect in the Baroque New Sciences/Scientific Revolution - The influx of Greek scholarship and scholars from Byzantium into Florence, Italy precipitated the Scientific Revolution - Period was marked by the mathematizing of the sciences and the arrival and rediscovery of new texts in mathematics, astronomy, geography, biology, and chemistry - Foundation of this period was the work of Aristotle (which they later moved beyond) - Most important scientists of this period: o Nicolaus Copernicus – Heliocentrism (center of solar system), globe with well distributed land and water o Galileo – physics and the “law of falling bodies” o Sir Isaac Newton – Calculus and unified physics & astronomy  Know about some book  Barometer – led to invention of steam engine o Ptolemy – Earth is a sphere Centralizing States and Religious Wars - The basis for centralizing states was a strong, firearms-based military force o Financial requirements of a highly centralized state required a reorganization of the relationship between rulers and classes as well as regional and local forces - Western Christian Europe form the second half of the 15th century onward was a patchwork of numerous independent and autonomous units including France, England, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Bohemia, Hungary, and more o Countries competed vigorously with each other and attempted to exploit the new possibilities which armies or mercenaries armed with firearms gave them The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) - Was a religious outgrowth of the Renaissance/Baroque/New Sciences Period - Kings tried to centralize power as did the Popes o Use of church funds for worldly projects and the raising of funds by selling indulgences and other underhanded means led to widespread discontent o Additionally, printing and literacy led to less need for church instruction in the Bible o Leader of Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther - Outgrowth of religious and political revolutions - Spread of popular theology: came about from spreading of books due to printing press increasing literacy - No clear separation of church and state, so pope and kings fought over who appointed bishops - 95 Theses: Luther’s theses were unintentionally spread, causing the revolution to begin Luther’s New Understanding of Scripture - Elevation of original New Testament Scripture over church tradition (Sola Scriptura)

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Salvation was by faith alone and not by good works Declaration the “priesthood of all believers” (Clergy were no longer mediators between God and man) Translated Bible into German so that anyone could, by reading or listening, rely solely upon Scripture as their source of faith - Catholic king of Habsburg Empire, Charles V, did not take kindly to Luther’s reforms since he was heavily entangled with the Catholic Church - Peasant’s War: Calvinism - One Protestant reformer from France was named John Calvin o Established new doctrine that was contrary to that of Catholic Church o Central idea of Calvinism was that of “predestination” wherein God has appointed, before one’s birth, whether or not he or she will be saved or not  Radical extrapolation of Luther’s approach to understanding salvation as grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone - More importantly, Calvin (unlike Luther) made the enforcement of morality through a formal code administered by local authorities part of his version of Protestantism - Calvinism spread like wildfires across Europe Catholic Reformation - Growing influence of Lutheranism and Calvinism forced the Catholic Church to examine and reform many of their practices and traditions - Called together the Council of Trent (1545-1563) which formally abolished payment for indulgences and phased out other church practices considered to be corrupt - Made no changes to the following, however: o Salvation through faith and good works o Priestly mediation of the clergy between God and man o Monasticism - Sought to enforce doctrine through the Papal Inquisition and by prohibiting the publication of certain books Religious Wars - Protestant and Catholic Reformations and their entanglement with politics sparked widespread warfare throughout Western Europe o France: Calvinism started civil war between Protestants and Catholics that ended in death of thousands o Netherlands: Protestant nation that sought to free themselves from Spanish Catholic rule o England: slow pace of reform in the Anglican Church erupted into a brutal civil war o Germany: Catholic and Protestant struggle erupted into Thirty Years War which killed 100,000 individuals - On religious level, western Christians grudgingly accepted denominational toleration; on the political level, the centralizing states evolved into polities based on absolutism, tempered by provincial and local administrative practices Civil War in France - Huguenots: protestants in France who became prosecuted for their beliefs - Huguenots went to war in France, and won, but only got control of 4 cities - Went to war again for 15 years with help from Spanish intervention - France king brought in Swiss and German mercenaries to supplement military, and Protestants won, again - Edicts: Protestants allowed full religious freedom - King Louis XIV – evoked Edict of Nates, making France Catholic again, Protestants fled to Netherlands _ and _ - Philip II took control of Spain – which controlled the Netherlands – and instead of changing course of history, he began prosecuting the Calvinists in the Netherlands o Phillip brought entire army – and got greedy with money – ultimately running out and losing to Protestants Know about English Civil War Absolutism - Theory of the state in which the unlimited power of the king, ruling under God’s divine mandate, was emphasized - French Model: o During its period of greatest political dominance, France came under rule of its longest-reigning monarch, King Louis XIV  Built palace of Versailles and had 10,000 courtiers, attendants, and servants, into a site of continuous feasting, entertainment, and intrigue  Highly centralized administration with supreme power that was tempered by local rulers and nobility

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Intendants – salaried, itinerant government officials who ensured that local office holders collected taxes and properly administered justice Parlements – appointed assemblies for ratification of decrees from Paris...