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Urban Dynamics Test Syllabus Notes urban dynamics: • the urban dynamics of change: suburbanisation, exurbanisation, counter urbanisation, decentralisation, consolidation, urban decay, urban renewal, urban village, spatial exclusion a • case study of the results of the urban dynamics in a large city selected from the developed world: - changing economic character, nature and location of residential land, commercial and industrial development

Urban Dynamics: The urban dynamics of change:

Suburbanisation: The outward growth of urban development The introduction of trams and suburban railway networks in the better half of the 19th century made suburban living possible for an increasing number of people. Mass car ownership from the mid- twentieth century onwards accelerated the trend. These trends, together with the development of commercial trucking industry, attracted people and industry to suburbia. As a result, the inner city and suburbia became increasingly distant from each other. Until the 1970’s people typically worked in the central city but lived in the suburbs. The suburbanisation of commerce and industry, already underway in the early 20th century, intensified during the 1960’s and 70’s, resulting in a complete restructuring of the metropolitan economy. This process was led by retail, especially the development of large shopping centres (the first being the Roselands Shopping Centre- opened in 1965). It was closely led by an upsurge in the suburbanisation of employment: first manufacturing employment but more recently, office based activities. The development of ‘edge cities’ or ‘mini cities’ are now becoming a distinctive feature of the urban landscape. Many are now becoming self-sufficient containing their own economic and cultural activities. Examples of these are Parramatta, Chatswood, North Sydney, Campbelltown, Liverpool, Bondi Junction. Transportation changes and urban morphology Until the introduction of railways, cities remained very compact within the inner city. Because most people walked to work the tended to live close to their place of employment. The introduction of railways led to the development of small, nucleated, suburban areas adjacent to a railway station. Ultimately, it was the introduction of the automobile that transformed the urban landscape.

Suburbanisation in Australia: Epping: One of Sydney’s early railway suburbs was Epping. Epping was established soon after the opening of the railway station in 1887 and homes and a post office soon lined around the station. The development of the area was slow until the end of WW2, where there was a demand for housing led to a surge in development.

Today, Epping is undergoing a big redevelopment as part of the NSW Governments ‘Urban Renewal Area’- a policy promoting urban consolidation.

Other factors of suburbanisation in Australia: • High birth rates and immigration generated a demand for housing. • An expansion in home ownership- a view held by those who see home ownership as a way to build a vested interest in the maintenance of the capitalist, free market economy. • Rising standards of living enabled working class and middle class families to move from the crowd, inner locations to the low- density, detached housing of the new middle and outer suburbs. ! Car Ownership: Since the 1950’s the number of private cars has risen dramatically. In 2017, there was 14.1 million registered vehicles, compared to 769,000 in 1950 and 76000 in 1920

Exurbanisation A process whereby people, usually affluent, move from city areas into rural areas but still commute to the city regularly In the 1990’s, urban geographers identified a new urban dynamic- the movement of mainly wealthy city dwellers to high- end housing on average in rural areas just beyond the outer edge of a city. This process is called ‘exurbanisation’. Exurbanisation involves the growth of low- density, semi rural settlements beyond the built up periphery of cities. People who live within these settlements remain typically remain functionally linked to the city and many commute to the city for work. Exurbia usually excludes the townships lying beyond the urban fringe. Exurbanisation in Australia The peri metropolitan area region around Sydney, within which exurbia is located, is defined as the regions bounded by the furthest extent from where it is possible to commute to metropolitan jobs. Closer to the outer suburban edge are exurban areas such as Dural, Galston and Kenthurst. Further out are Windsor and Richmond to the north-west and Picton and Camden to the southwest. Even further out lie the Bowral- Mittagong region to the south west; the Lithgow district to the west and Gosford- Wyong to the north. While Sydney’s peri metropolitan region has proven attractive for the wealthy, the exurban population is more diverse. Many people moving to the region are younger families (25-34 years); in managerial, professional and skilled trade- based occupations; and for the most part middle income earners rather than high income areas. Exurbanisation in Southern Highlands: Over the last decade or so there has been a marked increase in the number of Sydney-siders moving there to lead a semi-rural lifestyle. The region is an easy 90 minute drive via the M5 motorway. Some residents commute, while others stay in the city for a few nights a week and spend the rest of their time in the highlands. Others just visit for the weekend. Technology allows an increasing number of people to work from home, at least for part of the week. Interest in the region as a retreat from city living dates back to Australia’s colonial era. People went there to escape Sydney’s summer humidity, and enjoy a climate marked by four distinct seasons. In the late 1880’s, affluent city folk purchased land around Bowral and built grand mansions surrounded by an extensive English- style gardens

Counter- urbanisation and decentralisation Where large amounts of people move from urban areas into surrounding countryside or rural areas Counter urbanisation in Australia In some developed countries, including Australia, decentralisation became an official government policy. Incestives (including transport subsidies, low-interest loans and cheap land) were given to companies willing to relocate their activities to smaller, often regional, centres. In New South Wales, Bathurst and Orange were designated Regional Growth Centres in 1972 and a range of incentives were offered to encourage businesses to relocate there. The Sweedish owned Electrolux produced white goods under the Kelivinator and Westinghouse brands in an Orange factory previously used for munitions during WW2. At its peak, the factory employed over 2000 people. In October 2013 the factory closed, with the loss of 544 jobs. Like many Australian- based manufacturers, they were not able to compete with low cost plants in Asia. Contemporary examples of decentralisation in Australia are relatively rare. One possible exception is the relocation of Government departments and function from Canberra, and the state capitals, to the larger rural centres. The decision to move the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority from Canberra to Armidale is one of the more recent examples of this politically motivated strategy to employ jobs in rural areas. Another example is the relocation of NSW’s Land and Property Information agency to Bathurst and the Department of Primary Industries to Orange. The Australian Tax Office (ATO) is also a decentralised government agency. Albury0 Wodonga is a home to about 1000 ATO employees and their families. The end of counter-urbanisation Since the 1970’s the rate of counter-urbanisation has diminished, and in many countries the process has been reversed. Overseas: By 1982, metropolitan populations in the United States were again growing faster than nonmetropolitan populations- a return to the pattern in 1960’s. While the proportion of Americans living in urban centres barely changed during the 70’s, it increased sharply during the 80’s: from 73.7% to 75.2%. This rate of growth has sustained during the 1990’s and into the 2000’s. The population of North Dakota’s Logan Country, for example has declined from a population of 8100 in 1930 to 2099 in 2004 and just 1941 in 2016. Counterurbanisation in the United Kingdom reached a high point in 1970-73, and the slowed. By the mid 1980s, population change in the Greater London area stabilised and then started to increase as the popularity of inner-city living gathered pace. Greater London is now the fastest growing region in the UK. Between mid 2011 and mid 2015, the population grew 5.7%.

Australia: By the late 1990’s, the growth of large metropolitan centres had increased significantly. In 1998-99, Sydney’s population growth was 1.5%, compared to New South Wales, which was only 1.2%. Overall, this shows the growth was larger in cities, because everyone wanted to settle there due to an increase in pay and employment.

Urban Decay and Renewal The deterioration of the urban environment is considered ‘urban decay’. This occurs when infrastructure falls into disrepair and buildings are left empty for long periods of time. The redevelopment of such areas is considered ‘renewal’. Before the resurgence in inner city living, Sydney’s inner city experienced urban decay. This involved: • the deterioration of residential areas, especially those dominated by nineteenth century working class housing. • the decline in inner city investment as a result of suburbanisation of manufacturing and warehousing, retail and office based activities. Urban renewal also takes place in urban precincts that couldn't not be described as having urban decay. In some instances, the economic return is expected to be greater if the land is redeveloped. For example: the demolition and replacement of the IMAX theatre.

Urban Decay and Renewal in Sydney Since the late 1980’s there has been evidence of fundamental change in the balance of investment and population growth between the inner city and the suburbs. Prior to this, most residential and non residential development occurred in suburbia. Since then, the balance has moved towards the inner city. The 1996 Census- revealed that for the first time since 1911 there was a change from negative to substantial positive growth in Sydney’s inner city population. - Between 1996 and 2016, the population of Sydney’s local government area grew from 87,874 to 208,374. - In the five years to 2016, 40% of all job growth in Sydney metropolitan area occurred in the CBD. Much of the new inner city construction was previously used for non-residential purposes. This has occurred through land clearance or conversion; for example, of former warehouses. Some of this takes the traditional form of gentrification: the refurbishment of nineteenth-century terraces by middle income to high income earners. Paddington, Surry Hills and Glebe are good examples of gentrified suburbs. Sydney’s major renewal projects: - Carlton and United Breweries site (Central Park) - Barangaroo - Ashmore - Green Square Reasons why urban renewal takes place - Encouraging affluence - High accessibility - Profitability Brownfield site: A brownfield site is a region that is currently experiencing decay: abandoned Greenfield site: Undeveloped land that can potentially used for urban development

Urban Consolidation The term applied to the policies designed to increase population densities in exisiting urban areas. Urban consolidation is done to make more efficient use of existing infrastructure, and to limit spread of urban land into surrounding rural areas (urban sprawl). Involves the construction of medium-high density dwellings in already built areas, often former brownfield sites. Urban consolidation is often considered ‘urban intensification’. Positives of Urban Consolidation • slows the rate of urban sprawl • reduces call on government to fund expensive urban infrastructure • reduces car dependancy and promotes public transport • reduces greenhouse emissions • reduces social isolation and locational inequality • prevents loss of public realm • meets changing of housing needs of a more diverse population Negatives of Urban Consolidation • ‘greenfield’ developments on the periphery of urban areas need not to be as costly as an urban consolidation state increasing population in inner-urban areas will overwhelm the existing physical and social • infrastructure. • increasing the population density of inner city areas has not reduced the cost of housing. Attraction to the CBD has increased cost of inner city areas. • increased congestion • parking issues • loss of amenity and privacy Urban Consolidation in Sydney • Medium- density urban renewal: Typically involves the demolition of a row of 3-4 detached dwellings, and their replacement being townhouses, villas and duplexes, or three storey walk up apartment blocks. • High-density urban renewal: In very demanded areas, where land is more expensive, multi-storey apartment blocks are constructed. In inner-city locations, old ports and industrial areas are being converted into highdensity residential and commercial precincts. To be effective, urban consolidation depends on striking a balance between the demand generated by households that would prefer medium density and high density dwellings and the availability of such housing. Impacts of Demographic changes In general, people living alone and couples without children (sinks & dinks) are more likely to opt in for higher density housing.

Demographic and social changes that affect the rate of urban consolidation include: • An ageing population: By the middle of the 21st century, an estimated 25% of the population in Australia will be above the age of 65. Generally, people who are 65 and over, look to settle in townhouses, villas or apartments, as it is considered a more accessible or relaxed lifestyle. • Family units: - Lone person households: increased from 19.8% in 1991 to 24.4% in 2016. Projected to be 34% of all households in 2026. - Couples with children: declined from 53.7% in 1991 to 44.7% in 2016. Projected to be at 41.5% of all households in 2026. - In 2016, 72% of all households had no children under the age of 15. 12% only had one child, and only 6% had three or more children under the age of 15. - Couples with no children: increased from 32.5% of family units in 1991 to 37.2% in 2016. In 2026, it is expected to make up approximately 41-49% of all family units. Changing lifestyle expectations: With an ageing population, many individuals who retire receive a large superannuation for them to retire into. This often leads them to downsize their housing needs, and look towards medium-high density housing, as it offers a relaxing lifestyle and/or with easy accessibility. Immigration: Many individuals (especially asians) that immigrate to Australia are used to the high density housing in their old country, so often settle in more consolidated areas as they are more comfortable with the same lifestyle as before.

Urban Consolidation in Sydney - Sydney is set to grow by more than 1.5 million people in just over 20 years, from 5.07 million in 2017, to 6.62 million people in 2040. This will require a series of new housing developments, with majority of it being highly consolidated. - In 15 years today, Sydney will need to accomodate another 644,000 new dwellings to meet with the projected population. - ‘NSW Government’s Housing Strategy’: concentrates on development that strengthens existing urban areas and neighbourhoods focused on public transport lines. - Darling Square Development: The transformation of the Sydney Entertainment Centre precinct into a high-density neighbourhood is an example of both ‘urban consolidation’ and ‘renewal’. When complete, the development is expected the house 4,200 residents and the workplaces of another 2,500 people. There will be over 1,500 apartments and accomodation for 1,000 students in buildings of varying heights. At ground level, expected to be more than 60 shops, restaurants and bars.

Urban Village An urban village is a distinctive residential and/or commercial district whose functional form and character is influenced by a particular community. Community ‘as place’ is based on shared space; and the other community ‘as society’, is based on social organisation and interest. Thus an urban village is a distinctive residential district made up of groups of people with a common culture and identifiable local focus.

Sydney ‘city of villages’ The City of Sydney Council has adopted ‘urban villages’ to re-establish traditional neighbourhood patterns to promote vibrant, liveable and sustainable communities. Each village has its own unique characteristics. - city central: Haymarket and Chinatown, Walsh Bay, the Rocks - city east: Potts Point and Kings Cross - City west: Pyrmont, Glebe, Newtown - city south: Chippendale, Redfern, Waterloo Cities within cities Focused on the suburbanisation of employment; advances in telecommuncations; technological innovation; information processing e.tc - Examples: Parramatta, Campbelltown- defined as either a CBD or a Regional City Centre - Brookvale, Chatswood, St Leonards- defined as ‘strategic centres’ Only 8% of Sydney’s shopping dollar is spent in the CBD, well below the peaks of 15% in 1970’s.

Regionalisation Regionalisation of the city, bringing place of work and place of resident closer together contributes to the development of regional cultures and identity. People living on the south of Sydney’s Georges River have developed a regional identity focusing on ‘the Shire’ which stretches from the beaches of Cronulla in the east to Menai in the west. Some other cases less readily identifiable as villages. For example: - Cabramatta is often referred to the Vietnamese capital of Sydney because of the high concentration of Vietnamese immigrants - Eastwood: a higher concentration of Korean people highlight a community within a community.

Spatial Exclusion In cities of both the developed and developing world, the desire for higher income earners to protect their privileged lifestyle has resulted in practices such as ‘spatial exclusion’ that limit the access and movement of other urban dwellers. Examples of this include high-security suburbs and security conscious shopping malls and business centres. The control and regulation of land use is the usual means by which ‘undesirable elements’ are excluded from a particular urban space. This practice is often referred to as ‘exclusionary zoning’. Exclusionary zoning: An offshoot off the economic or class segregation in the United States (and elsewhere) and dates back from the 1920’s. The desire of the emerging suburbanising middle class was to maintain a social distance from the immigrant underclass, racial minorities and the poor of the inner city. Its aim was to protect from a widespread fear of crime: the threat to property and person. The most common exclusionary zoning is ‘gated communities’.

Gated Communities: Gated communities are residential areas with restricted access in which normally public spaces are privatised. They are secure residential developments with defined perimeters, usually walls or fences, and controlled entrances that are designed to prevent non- residents from entering. In Australia, gated communities have fallen out of fashion. This is because of the generally low risk of crime in many areas, and no real demand for safety. However, many people are still actively searching for a gated community to protect their privileged lifestyle and own self-leisure. Macquarie Links is an example of a gated community in Sydney, having 300 homes and 900 residents located on the outskirts of a golf course. There is also a 24hr security given by the estate.

A case study of the results of urban dynamics in a large city selected in the urban world: Sydney Changing economic character Sydney is an international and globalised city, with a strong link to many other economic world cities. In addition to being to Australia’s largest city, it is the country’s financial capital and regional corporate for the growing number of TNC’s with investments throughout South- East Asia and the Pacific. Sydney ha...