USYD PSYC2015 Brain and Behavioural Lecture Notes 2021 PDF

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Introduction lecture 1/3/ Learning and Motivation Focus on basic instrumental learning processes and motivation Clinical Psychology Focus on emotion and motivational disorders Focus on behavioral therapies Evolution & Developmental Psychology Focus on socio-emotional development Development of a...

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Introduction lecture 1/3/21 -

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Learning and Motivation - Focus on basic instrumental learning processes and motivation - Clinical Psychology - Focus on emotion and motivational disorders - Focus on behavioral therapies - Evolution & Developmental Psychology - Focus on socio-emotional development - Development of affect and conduct disorders - [in PSYC3016, focus placed on genetic contributions to development, cognitive development and moral development] - Neuroscience - A focus on behavioural neuroscience and psychopharmacology, motivational and affective neuroscience - Most closely tied to the other topics thoughts in this course Tutorials - SLEEPING PATTERNS - Weeks 2-7: will be an exercise in developing a self-management programme to modify your own behaviour - 3: Begin measuring behaviour - 4: Review your observations, develop you plan - 5: in class testing. Implement your own behaviour modification plan and collect data - 6: Second in class testing - 7: Data returned - Weeks 8-9: developmental psychology - Weeks 10-11: Neuroscience - Week 13: Debate Assessment Breakdown - Compulsory assessments - 25% Mid semester examinations W8 - 25% End of semester examination - 30% Written report W10 (monday) - 1,500 word report with only the results and discussion section on your tutorial exercise - Non-compulsory - 15% Tutorial quizzes - 4 small quizzes covering the tutorials from week 8-11 - Will be done at the start of a lecture in weeks 9-12 - Online, 5MCQs, 8-mins - Best 3 make up the 15% - 5% class debate

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Participation mark effectively Bring one page of hand-written notes to demonstrate to your tutor that you have studied and prepared

Evan Lectures Evan L Lecture 1 - Positive Reinforcement (Lecture 2 3/3/21 ) -

Instrumental condition (also operant conditioning) - “Response learning” - stimulus -> response -> outcome - Distinct from classical conditioning (Pavlov) - Thorndike’s law of effect - In a situation, do an action which results well? Next time you’re in that situation you’ll do that action - Behaviourist - Radical behaviourist commonly sighted - Watson and Skinner - Focus on what can be measured, ignore hypothesising around what one is thinking

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Note that the reinforcements are the cases where the response increases, aversive positive contingency is not reinforcement Factors affecting instrumental conditioning - Temporal contiguity (time between response and reinforcement) - The shorter the delay, the more effective the reinforcer is - Contingency (amount of reinforcer) - Strong contingency when the reinforcement is only delivered following the action Shaping - Reinforce approximations of desired action, until the action is performed - Secondary reinforcements - Previously neutral stimuli that acquires reinforcing properties Response Chaining - Shaping a sequence of simpler responses to form a more complex sequence Schedules of reinforcement - Secondary reinforcement - Practical reinforcement

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Relates to the real world, more practical and reliable

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Extinction - Availability of reinforcement is removed - Zero contingency between response and reinforcer - Partial reinforcement extinction effect

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Evan L Lecture 2 - The Role of the Discriminative stimulus in behaviour (Lecture 3 4/3/21) -

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Discriminative stimuli - S+ versus S- In presence of S+, the response is reinforced - In presence of S-, the response is not - Too simplistic view, the animal may be considering whether they want it as well as the stimuli - Examples - Contexts - emotional/psychological states - The passage of time - The reinforcer itself Is extinction unlearning - Spontaneous recovery - Reinstatement - No food for a while, random food, start pressing lever again - Rapid reacquisition - Renewal Stimulus control - Discriminative stimuli “control” behaviour - Free will is an illusion - Determinists - Behaviour is observably different in the presence vs the absence of a particular stimulus - Stimulus control is acquired through differential Rf - Generalisation - If Rft is delivered in the presence of a stimulus (S+), learning tends to generalise to similar stimuli - Discrimination - Discrimination between stimuli means behaving differently towards them

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Applies when the stimulus is easy to tell apart or when the stimuli is confusable Discrimination learning - Generalization as failure to discriminate - Sensory limitations - Lack of stimulus control - Finer discriminations can be learned through Rft Weird results from discriminaiton learning and generalisation - Peak shift - Displacement of the “peak” of the gradient away from S+ in the direction opposite S-

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Face caricatures - More exaggerated features is more notable

Evan L Lecture 3 - The Motivating role of the reinforcer (Lecture 4 8/3/21) -

Motivation - Condition behaviour - Variable but persistent - You may get more tired on different days while doing a walk you commonly do, you will still do it but maybe slower - Deprivation and satiation - Affect activity and affect preferences - Motivation and Performance - Internal states can affect performance of previously learned responses - Paradoxical reward effect with frustration - Role of motivation in learning - Thorndike's law of effect - Mental connection/link between stimulus and reinforcer - However this implies that all actions are motivated by rewards - Latent learning

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Tolman - Animal maze, hypothesis rat won't learn unless there is food - Ultimately, the rats learn either way, the ones with food make less mistakes - Swap smoe groups, so now food is available to some that weren’t before etc. - The ones that started with no food but get food are the best, the ones who lost the food just plateau and start making more mistakes (a higher plateau consistently) - Learning is an internal change in the animal that permits later improved performance Circularity in the idea of reinforcement

Other definitions of reinforcement - Hull - Integrated theory of learning and motivation - (with spence) popularised the S-R learning psychology dominated up the late 1960s - Influential theory but not always useful - drive : central anxiety/stress in need of relief - Premack (1959) - Reinforcement involves behaviour of it own (e.g. consumption) - Reinforcement = increasing access to preferred behaviours - The Premack Principle - (given sufficient freedom) what behaviours is an individual most likely to engage in? - High vs low probability behaviours (preferred vs not) - Relative behavioural property - You can encourage an low probability action with the reinforcer of a high probability action -

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Evan L Lecture 4 Fear and Punishment (Lecture 5 10/03/2021) -

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Peak Shift effect is displacement of the peak of a gradient away from S+ in the direction opposite, SFactors affecting punishment - Yerkes & Dodson (1908) - Law to account for variance in habit formation based on the strength of stimuli - Similar to reinforcement (temporal, consistent etc) - Delay - Shorter better than longer etc - Temporal continuity - Punishment schedule - Continuous schedule is better than partial - Path dependence - Weaker increasing to stronger is ineffective Omission - negative punishment - Response that decreases the probability of an appetitive outcome - McGreevy & Boakes (2007) - Association of loud visible object with disappointment for a dog Herman & Azrin (1964) - Need for alternative ways to achieve goal otherwise reinforcement is less effective Why punishment works - Classical conditioning - conditioned emotional response - Suppression through fear conditioning - Avoidance Learning - Side effects - Neurotic symptoms - Aggression - Elicited by pain, frustration - Modelling of behaviour - Punishment seeking behaviour - Brown et al. (1964) - Persistent and self-punitive behavior Extinction - No response, lack of reinforcement for undesired behaviour Differential reinforcement of other behaviours (DRO) - Reinforcement that shows different behaviours are good or bad Punishment is most effective when it is immediate, consistent, contingent on undesirable response, delivered under variety of conditions, sufficiently aversive from the outset, not

too severe, delivered in the presence of alternative responses - and in the case of human it should be accompanied of a rational explanation

Evan L Lecture 5 Avoidance Learning (Lecture 6 11/03/2021) -

Negative reinforcement - Two types - Escape - Warning signal and negative event - Escape the negative event itself - Avoidance - Warning signal and negative event - Leave during warning to avoid negative event in its entirety - Escape is common in early training and avoidance is present in later training - Shuttle boxes - Problem with avoidance learning - The animal must have some awareness and memory skills to continue with avoidance behaviour - How is the avoidance of a negative event reinforcing, there is not stimulus to confirm it, the confirmation is the lack of response - Possible solution - Two-process theory - Classical conditioning then instrumental learning

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Maintenance of avoidance is circular

The two-process theory issues - Avoidance behavior is maintained by classical and instrumental condition - Classical (fear) condition must come first

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Treats avoidance as escape from a tangible event and disregards the (absent) shock itself Not all responses can be easily trained as avoidance responses - Rats in Bolles study - running is easier to train than turing which is easier than standing - Natural fear responses (species-specific defence reactions) are easier to condition

Safety Signals - Warning signals elicit fear - something aversive is coming - Safety signals provide comfort - you are safe - Signalled by - The offset of the warning signals - Stimuli associated with escape (e.g. doorway) - The avoidance response itself - Safety signals help - Improve acquisition of avoidance response - Maintain avoidance in the absence of overt fear - Protect awning(?) signals from extinction Observational learning - Direct exposure to aversive outcome is not necessary for the development of avoidance - Observational learning in monkeys - development of phobias - Perceived threat is sufficient - Emotional state (fear/anxiety) is the critical outcome Superstitious avoidance - Rituals or objects to “ward off” unpleasant events - Empty pill jars, lucky item of clothing, routines or sayings - Vigilant performance of ritual = harder to extinguish - Less opportunity to observe the real consequence of the eliciting stimulus (i.e. Stimulus - no aversive outcome) - Ritual protects stimulus from extinction Treatment of avoidance - exposure therapy - Must learn that the CS is safe - Extinguish CS-fear association - Flooding - Can backfire easily - Systematic desensitization

Ian Lectures Ian J Lecture 1 & 2 Motivational effects of failure, success, and self-efficacy (Lecture 7 & 8) -

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The interference effect - Exposure to an uncontrollable stressor interfered with learning behaviour around negative event Contingency vs Continuity Seligman & Maier’s use of tripartite design - why Long term effects of uncontrollable stressors - A belief in change increases intrinsic motivation and promotes change What does ∆𝑝 = 0mean? What does it mean when ∆𝑝 < 0 or ∆𝑝 > 0? - Contingency ∆𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑌/𝑋) − 𝑝(𝑌/𝑛𝑜𝑋) - Learned helplessness ∆𝑝 = 𝑝(𝐶/𝑅) − 𝑝(𝐶/𝑛𝑜𝑅) = 0 Theory of Learned helplessness - A perceived or real absence of control over outcomes in a situation - Features - Transituationality - Inoculation What are the different ways optimistic and pessimistic people attribute success or failure? - Attributional style - It’s not about how good of a life you have, its how you attribute the cause and stability of those events (Abramson, Sligman, Teasdale, 1978) - Internal vs external - Global vs specific - Permanent vs temporary - Optimist E-S-T - Pessimist I-G-P What is Optimism bias, and how does it affect people's tendencies to understand risky behaviour? - Healthy people overestimate the likelihood of positive events - Sense of competitive risk - Direct measure vs indirect measure - Smoking - Optimism bias that makes a person believe they are safer than others performing a dangerous activity - Bias belief of their ability to control their own behaviour - Downplay the risk to themselves, increase the risk to others Dunning-Kruger Effect

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How does one calculate the Expected Utility of success, and what roles does Ps have in behavioural choice

Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation - Extrinsic motivation - Driven by external rewards - Tangible like money - Physiological like fame and status - Not great with moral reasoning - Motivation relies on bribery, greed, sloth, denial, coercion or constant surveillance Intrinsic motivation - No clear extrinsic rewards - Like Labor required to gain expertise - “Undermining Children’s Intrinsic Interest with extrinsic reward” Lepper and Greene What is self-determination theory? - Deci & Ryan, 1985 - Factors - Competence - seek to control the outcome and experience mastery - Relatedness- is the universal want to interact, be connected to and experience caring for others - Autonomy - is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life - How these relate to intrinsic motivation - Feedback acts to signal increased competence

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Signals for autonomy must be available for people to see that their behaviour is self-determined - Aversion to being controlled How do performance-dependant rewards increase intrinsic motivation? - Eisenberg & Cameron (1996) differentiated between - Task dependent reward - Performance-dependent reward - Quality dependent reinforcement - Eisenberg & cameron 1996 called this learned industriousness - Quality dependent reinforcers increasing intrinsic motivation - Reducing aversionness of effort - Signal increased competence/ achievement - Increase perceived self-determination - Reinforcement for minimal effort may convey task triviality - Conversely, reward procedures requiring high performance convey a task’s importance, its personal or social significance

Ian J Lecture 3 - Choice and Self-Control (Lecture 9) -

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How does the Matching Law predict choice between two concurrent schedules? - The distribution of behaviour can be predicted by the history of the distribution of reinforcement - Behaviour = reinforcement x k (the constant slope) - B1/(B1+B2) = R1/ (R1+R2) How can differential reinforcement of other behaviours reduce an unwanted behavior? - Example: kids just want attention, so instead of giving them attention when they do bad things, only give them attention when doing good things that directly contradict the bad thing (sitting in seat vs running around) Why do people choose to do activities than produce less valuable but immediate rewards compared to activities that produce more valuable long term rewards? - Paradox of choice - We value things differently with delays, reward optimisation - Self control - delaying immediate gratification for a bigger longer-term reward - Impulsivity - forgoing a larger long-term reward for immediate gratification - Marshmallow choice with kids Linked to SES , better control results in better future - Smoking - Delay discounting - Increasing self-control - Make an immediate rewards less obvious - Distraction from immediate rewards

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- Delay the rewards too Why do people dislike too much choice? Stuff that i don’t know what heading to put under -

Stephanie Lectures Stephanie T Lecture 1 - Theories of Mental Illness and Diagnosis (Lecture 10) -

Main theories to understand mental disorders - Defining abnormality - Deviance, distress and dysfunction (Maladaptive behaviour) - Empirical methods - Causation : Biological, psychological, social - Description: Classification, diagnosis of mental illness - Treatment: Effectiveness - Supernatural theory of mental illness - Cause: possession by demonic forces, gods, astrological forces - Treatment: exercosim, healing, ceremonies, witch hunting (Punishment fit the crime, reflective of believed causes) - Medical/ Biological theory of mental illness - Causes: internal biological dysfunction, physical issue - Dominant model in psychiatry, the underlying model of DSM-5 - Assumes that mental illness can be diagnosed similar to physical illness, and can be explained in terms of biological disease process - Limitation and critiques - Extreme reductionism - Complex phenomena cannot be explained on a neutral level - Trauma etc. - Cannot assume causation from treatment efficacy - May not be applicable to conceptualising and diagnosing mental illness - Clear boundary between physical health and illness but continuum between mental health and disorder - Psychoanalytic Theories of Mental Illness - Maladjustment - misplacing tension and creating problems - Cognitive-Behavioural Model - Developed mid 20th century (Aaron beck) & dominant today - What we thing influences how we feel and what we do

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maladjustments : negative core beliefs treatment - Cognitive challenging, behavioural experiments, exposure Two main diagnostic classification systems and their difference (ICD vs DSM) - Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM) - English speaking countries - Purely mental health - International classification of DIseases and HEalth related Problems (ICD) - Mainly physical illnesses Evaluation of DSM through time Benefits and limitations of diagnosis + DSM5

Stephanie T Lecture 2 - Mood Disorders: Depression and Bipolar (Lecture 11) -

Features of depressive episodes (vs. depressive disorder) - DSM5 A. At least 5+ symptoms during a 2 week period (need 1 or 2) 1. Depressed mood most of the day, nearly everyday 2. Markedly diminished pleasure/ interest in activities (anhedonia) 3. Significant weight loss or weight gain 4. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly everyday 5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation 6. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day 7. Feelings of worthlessness and excessive guilt nearly everyday 8. Diminished ability to concentrate nearly everyday 9. Recurrent thoughts of death, suicide, suicide attempts B. Clinically significant distress of impairment C. Not attributed to substance use or other medical condition -

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The symptoms in 2 week period are either - Affective: like depressed mood, anhedonia - Somatic: like fatigue, sleep or appetite change - Cognitive : like feelings of guilt or lack of emotion - You must also make sure the symptoms don’t better fit another disorder (like for depressive episodes, major depressive disorder instead) Features of hypomanic & manic episodes - Bipolar I (BPI): Manic Episode A. At least one week of

1. Abnormally & persistently elevated, expansive or irritable mood, and 2. Increased goal directed activity/energy, present nearly daily -

Manic episodes typically evolve over several weeks from heightened bellbeing to euphoria - Episodes move quickly from an elated mood to an irritable mood or can fluctuate between elation & irritability B. At least 3 or more symptoms present to a significant degrees & noticeable change from unusual behaviour 1. Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity 2. Decreased need for sleep 3. Rapid or pressured speech 4. Flight of ideas or racing thought 5. Distractibility 6. Increase...