War and Independence in Latin America PDF

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War and Independence in Spanish AmericaOverview - Similar to Argentina crisis on the peninsula = triggered unrest in northern part of South America. - Venezuela = violent and lengthy struggle  decimated the population for the next 10 years. - Colombia = less brutal, but equally long and confusing....

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War and Independence in Spanish America Overview - Similar to Argentina crisis on the peninsula = triggered unrest in northern part of South America. - Venezuela = violent and lengthy struggle  decimated the population for the next 10 years. - Colombia = less brutal, but equally long and confusing. - Both nations faced repeated setbacks at the hands of royalists  especially following the arrival of General Pablo Morillo’s army in 1815. - Both also faced regional divisions  with rival cities and provinces declaring their autonomy, not only from SPN BUT ALSO from one another. Questions 1. What were the key social and economic characteristics of Colombia and Venezuela? 2. Why did the first and second Venezuelan Republics fail? 3. Why was the struggle for independence in Venezuela so violent? 4. What factors hampered the achievement of independence in New Granada? 5. What part did slaves and Llaneros (South American herder – provided the cavalry) play in the wars of independence? Reading Notes War and Independence in Spanish America by Anthony McFarlane Reading 1: Chapter 4 “Civic Wars and New Republics, Venezuela and New Granada, 1810-12” in War and Independence in Spanish America by Anthony McFarlane (pp.85-110) Venezuela (overview from the start of chapter 4) - Origins of war = the breakdown of monarchy and the fragmentation of the GOV. - Initial dispute = NOT general American opposition to SPN or the hatred of SPN, nor in the opposition of plebeians vs. upper classes. o BUT INSTEAD rooted in the disputes between towns that defended SPN authority and those who claimed the right to form autonomous or independent GOVs of their own. -

As the conflict spread and persisted  the armed struggle among white elites spread to other social and ethnic groups. Lower-class mobilisation came about as offshoots of struggles among elites who competed to win popular support for their opposing causes. This had different effects in Venezuela.

Social and Economic Characteristics of Venezuela - Caracas’ population = ½ of Venezuela’s total population of 800,000. - Main exports = cacao, indigo and coffee  dominated external trade.

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Caracas = home to the main institutions of the Venezuelan GOV  the intendant and captain general. ALSO home to the richest landowners, merchants and crown functionaries, AND the only university in Venezuela (pg.86). Unlike Cuba (where the whites feared that any fissures in their authority might provoke uprisings form below) Caracas saw a rapid political development from autonomous juntas to independent republic o Widened the war between separatists and their royalist opponents (pg.86).

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When the Caracas Junta = established  a sense of legitimacy BUT there were also centrifugal forces (forces in the surrounding area – from Caracas) o NOT surprising as the population of Venezuela = unevenly dispersed over a large area. o Provinces had little in common with one another

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Venezuelan society = composed of communities – cities, towns and villages  they were marked by considerable variation in social composition, economic ways of life and experience of GOV (pg.86) o Saw themselves as autonomous entities RATHER THAN parts of an administrative hierarchy.

Venezuela: Civic Wars and the First Republic - 18th April 1810  agents of the SPN Regency arrived in the city of Caracas - After all the political commotion  the local nobility announced an open hearing of the cabildo (municipal council) set for the morning of 19th April = Maundy Thursday - 19th April  an expanded municipal GOV of Caracas took power in the name of Ferdinand VII o GOV = The Supreme Junta to Preserve the Rights of Ferdinand VII o They deposed Captain General Vicente Emparán and other colonial officials  (a colonial administrative region that had been set up in the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1777 to give the provinces of Venezuela more autonomy) o Caracas Junta proclaimed to be acting in the name of Ferdinand VII  HOWEVER a faction which favoured independence was to become dominant and lead the movement for independence o Initiated the process to declare independence from SPN. -

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After 19th April, many Venezuelan provinces also established juntas. o Most of them recognised the Caracas one o BUT a few recognised declared their independence from both the Regency in SPN and the Junta in Caracas (pgs.86-7) Other regions still never established juntas  they instead kept their established authorities and continued to recognise the GOV in SPN SUBSEQUENTLY  this situation led to a civil war between the Venezuelans in favour of the new autonomous juntas and those still loyal to the SPN Crown

o Caracas’s desire to bring the provinces into a federation took it closer to war with SPN due to its confrontation with Maracaibo and Coro (towns were royalist officials = still in control) -

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SPN’s Regency Council had taken steps to reinforce the royalist position by promoting Fernando Miyares, governor of Maracaibo, to the position of captain general of Venezuela. Antonio de Cortabarria = placed in Puerto Rico ready to attack Caracas if need be. Caracas Junta could not leave this challenge unanswered  so it decided to confront the royalist challenge by mobilising an army against Coro. 1st step towards the militarisation of the political revolution inaugurated in April 1810. o They embarked on a war with an armed force that combined regular soldiers from the old regime with new elements formed by urban militias of “patriotic volunteers” (pg.87). o Junta exhorted citizens to give military service (not reliant on a professional army)  saw this as an obligation to the community o Recruitment of the people for the purposes of political education and preservation of social discipline (similar ideas seen in New Granada)  Seen as important as military efficiency (pg.87). The use of army  a reflection of contemporary political ideas the junta preferred to use the army as a diplomatic weapon RATHER THAN a means to annihilate the enemy (pg.88) Aimed at a peaceful solution, by presenting itself as the legitimate defender of Ferdinand VII. o Wanted to avoid any hint of division between SPN and Americans o Seeking to end the conflict with negotiation with the royalist enclaves (pg.88). ALSO the new political leadership = reluctant to build up its army for both financial and political reasons. Venezuela and New Granada  preference for establishing militias  had important implications (pg.88) One consequence = military weakness (1st displayed in Venezuela). Attack on Coro = prelude to further conflict. January 1811  Cortabarria declares war Royalist aggression accelerated the movement into civil war. Caracas sought withdrawal from SPN As the political divide deepened, the competing sides sought popular support in order to overwhelm the other (pg.89).

Francisco de Miranda, Independence and Issues of Race - After the juntas = set up  Venezuelan emigrant = Francisco de Miranda returns - He takes advantage of the rapidly changing political climate.

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Miranda = a persona non grata (a person whose entering or remaining = prohibited by the country’s GOV)  following his attempt to liberate Venezuela in 1806. Miranda = elected to the Congress  began agitating for independence o He surrounded himself with like-minded people o He formed an association, which was modelled on the Jacobin Club, to pressure the Congress.

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Tactic of persuasion  Miranda used the tricolour flag in the independence campaign and the flag forms the basis of the present day Venezuelan flag, which uses the same three colours with the addition of stars and a coat of arms.

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Independence = declared on 5th July 1811  Miranda managed to persuade them (pg.89) 1812  Congress established a Confederation = American Confederation of Venezuela in its Declaration of Independence (pg.89) o Referred variously as States of Venezuela and afterwards United States of Venezuela, and American Confederation of Venezuela in Constitution o Constitution = crafted mostly by lawyer Juan Germán Roscio o Ratified on the 21st December 1811.

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Constitution created a strong bicameral legislature (two separate assemblies) This ALSO happened in the neighbouring New Granada. BUT the Congress kept the weak executive consisting of a triumvirate. This GOV = NOT in force for long, since the provinces (which were referred to as states in the Constitution) did not fully implement it. Provinces ALSO wrote their own constitutions, a right that the Congress recognised.

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There were regions that refused to join the republic. o These included the cities of Coro, Maracaibo, Guayana and Valencia, which had initially joined but then changed position.

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This radical change failed to produce the fraternal republic promised. INSTEAD it weakened support for the republic among white without firmly anchoring it in the allegiance of the free-black and mixed race people. Whites = angry  feared that the regime would be too radical and emancipate slaves Pardos (mixed race) = annoyed that the regime had not fulfilled their promises in the Constitution of 1812 o They demanded equality  the constitution had raised their hopes, and the republic failed to satisfy their aims/dreams (pg.89) Llaneros (peoples of the plains) = unhappy too. o The new law specified that llaneros could not intrude into private land to graze or hunt the cattle they depended on.

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Any attempt to modify the social hierarchy would enrage the whites  determined to defend their position of superiority o THUS the new constitution lacked a broad social base (pg.90).

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FURTHER divide when the royalists recruited black slaves to fight for their cause. o In 1810 they encouraged uprisings among pardos and slaves o Began to justify their rebellions as loyalty to the king (pg.90).

Civil War and Disestablishment -

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ALTHOUGH the Congress declared independence, the provinces of Maracaibo and Guayana and the district of Coro remained loyal to the Supreme Junta of SPN, and the Cádiz Cortes that followed. New Confederation claimed the right to govern the territory of the former Captaincy General. o HOWEVER the region plunged into civil war by 1810 with fighting breaking out between royalist and republican areas. o Military expedition from Caracas to bring Coro back under its control = defeated in November.

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Caracas Junta = continued to govern the Caracas Province o BUT it did NOT have much power in the newly declared Confederation. o Difficulty in getting supplies and reinforcements from the other confederated provinces.

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Confederation = led by criollos o NOT able to appeal to the lower classes, despite their attempts to do so  hindrance = the declining economic situation. o Cut off from SPN  Venezuela lost the market for its main export = cocoa. o SUBSEQUENTLY  the nation faced severe losses

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1812  Confederation began suffering serious military fails o 11th July, 1811 in the city of Valencia  creoles, pardos and Canarians rallied in the name of Ferdinand VII o Congress responded with a military crackdown  The GOV granted Miranda command of the army and leadership of the Confederation (pg.91)  He used the threat of force to seek a negotiated solution (pg.91)  They retook the city BUT at considerable cost (pg.91)

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Threat of military aggression against the republic might have been less serious had the new regime dealt with it more effectively (pg.92)

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Republic = lost credibility  especially among the whites due to their anxiety over the pardos’ claim for political equality

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This dislike = further aggravated by the republics mismanagement of the treasury and economic difficulties. o Within months Caracas junta had exhausted the colonial treasury  mainly a result of doubling army pay and creating new administrative posts (pg.92) o They were forced to purchase needed supplies from their new trading partners = GB and USA o BUT these new trading partners could not take the full output of agricultural products as payment. AS A RESULT  the GOV began to print paper money to pay its debts  BUT the paper money rapidly lost value (pg.92) o This turned many against the GOV. Most important problem they were facing = lack of legitimacy  which the royalists exploited to the full (pg.92) Powerful earthquake hits the region on 26th March 1812 (which also happened to be Maundy Thursday) = caused damage mostly in republican areas  ALSO helped turn the population against the Republic (pg.93) Caracas Junta = established on the Maundy Thursday the previous year  the earthquake fell on tis 2nd anniversary. o This was interpreted by many as a sign from God o SUBSEQUENTLY these differences escalated into a civil war  many people, including those in the Republican army began to secretly plot against the Republic, or outright defect. o Other provinces refused to send reinforcements to Caracas Province. o Many ALSO began to switch sides  FOR EXAMPLE due to uprisings Cumaná became cut off from the Republican centre, and refused to recognise Miranda’s dictatorial powers and his appointment of a commandant general.  By the end of the month many of the outlying areas of the Cumaná Province = ALSO defected to the royalists.

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Miranda  made steps towards republican militarisation o Patriot army grew to 4,000 men o BUT it appears that he lacked confidence in his position (pg.93) o Didn’t attack Valencia directly, but instead the route between Valencia and Victoria (which Monteverde = able to avoid and still attack Valencia) – (pg.93)  Miranda had to subsequently fall back to Caracas.

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Taking advantage of these circumstances a SPN captain, Domingo Monteverde (based in Coro) = able to turn a small force under his command into a large army. o Many people joined him on his advance to Valencia (see pg.92)

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By mid-July Monteverde had taken Valencia.

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Miranda believed that the situation (especially after seeing the enemy strengthened by the capture of Puerto Cabello) = hopeless and began to negotiate with Monteverde – (pg.93). 25th July 1812  Miranda and Monteverde finalised a capitulation (ceasing to resist an opponent)  in which the former republican areas would recognise the SPN Cortes. Monteverde’s forces entered Caracas on the 1st August 1812. THUS  1st Republic came to an end.

So why did the 1st Republic fail? 1. Miranda - The Army -

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NOT crushed on the battlefield  Miranda negotiated to surrender without actually fighting (pg.93) Miranda = blamed by several officers for the defeat  including Simon Bolivar (pg.93). They handed Miranda over to Monteverde  ensured that Miranda would spend the rest of his days in a SPN prison (pg.93) BUT it wasn’t that Monteverde won by intimidation rather than destruction It was because the republican GOV had NOT secured sufficient political support (pg.94) o Confederal principles ensured that the cities remained intent on their own sovereignty and failed to cooperate. o ALSO the republic failed to broaden its political base  Refusal to grant pardos full civil rights  they neglected a constituency that might have been won over by concession of the rights that the Cadiz Constitution was reluctant to concede (pg.94). Miranda’s attempt to create an army also reflected public unwillingness to support the republic (pg.94) He had to implement strong discipline  due to high desertion rate o Soldiers = hastily assembled forced conscripts o These men = not untied by a shared identity or by hatred of a common enemy (pg.95).

2. Popular Support - Slaves -

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Another element in Miranda’s defeat = the republic’s failure to win support among slaves Tried to change things with his proclamation of May 1812, promising freedom to slaves who joined his forces. o BUT he allowed himself to be curbed by the slave owners’ protests (who refused to let their slaves go), despite the military emergency (pg.94) War = imposing social consequences that outran the boundaries of political change envisaged by the revolutionaries and acceptable to the social elites (pg.94)

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Royalists = more successful at recruiting slaves (pg.94)

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Despite the intense propaganda of its official press, the first republic failed to attract sufficient support either within the province of Caracas or among the provinces (pg.94)

3. The earthquake - Republican army had no answer to the immense damage caused by the earthquake o Death o Destruction of property o Dislocation of the economy (pg.95) -

Believed it was a sign from God  needed to stick with SPN

4. Political and military ineptitude - Their incompetence stripped the Caracas GOV of defence that might have been much more solid - Military weakness that allowed royalism to recover = result of the decisions made by the republican politicians (pg.95) 5. Miranda surrenders - He justified it that it would avoid pointless bloodshed, but his motives = remain unclear -

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The collapse of the 1st republic led to a reversal of roles in Venezuela Revolutionaries who had fought against royalist insurgents had now become insurgents themselves, forced into exile. They did NOT have the economic or military means to continue fighting against the royalists (who had the resources of the state) – (pg.96) BUT republican determination meant Monteverde = NOT in power for too long Their motivation to fight back = down to a few insurgents like Simon Bolivar. They were also helped by neighbouring areas  especially Cartagena (Colombia) who had recently declared independence. o Cartagena = actively engaged in fighting royalist forces o THUS this was a chance for republicans to unite the Venezuelan and New Granadan cities to a common cause (pg.96)

(Still Chapter 4) New Granada -

1810  New Granada pattern of political development = similar to that of Venezuela. Royalist institutions = removed and replaced by juntas  asserted their right to govern in the absence of a legitimate king (pg.96).

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Movement against the established authority = began in Cartagena in June 1810 and then spread. July 1810  authorities removed in Cali, Pamplona and Socorro 20th July 1810  highpoint of juntista movement  overthrow of the viceroy and audiencia in Stafe de Bogota o Led to the installation of the Supreme Junta of Santafe (pg.96). BUT a few cities clung to royalist rule e.g. Santa Marta. Fragmentation of political authority reflected the tendency of the local notables, who led the juntas, to assert sovereign rights in the name of their “pueblos” o The province = centre of sovereignty

Social and Economic Characteristics of Cartagena -

Cartagena population = largely mulatto and black populations, with a substantial no. slaves White elites depended for their wealth on commerce with the exterior.

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Andean communities = largely composed of white and mestizo population  lived on agriculture and more isolated from the outside world (pg.97)

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These regions = somewhat united due to their common authority under the audiencia and viceroy based in Bogota. BUT the administrative structure under SPN rule ALSO permitted localism 22 provinces in New Granada compared to the 6 of Venezuela  the communities in these many provinces tended to go their own way after the crisis of 1810.

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