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Inflectional MorphologyKönig und GastGrammatical ideaEnglish GermanGeneral In every language two expressive devices  Lexicon (inventory of basic units of meaning)  Grammatical system  All inflectional categories of German grammar also in English and vis versa, but to in all cases to a different ...

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Inflectional Morphology König und Gast Grammatical idea

English

General

 In every language two expressive devices  Lexicon (inventory of basic units of meaning)  Grammatical system  All inflectional categories of German grammar also in English and vis versa, but to in all cases to a different extent.  division between the three major lexical categories that inflect in both languages  nouns/ pronouns, adjectives, verbs (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. do not inflect in German or English)

Case marking

suffixes

articles

Gender

German

Suffix –s: Saxon genitive (would be a twoAll 4 cases are possible in German term system of case: genitive vs. common (Nominativ, Genitiv, Dativ, Akk) for nouns, case) articles, and adjectives Why is it argued that the English “genitive” suffix –s is not a real case suffix? - As it HAS a genitive –s, it indicates that it has a case system, BUT as you can add the –s to a whole NP (e.g. [my friend next door]’s shoes) - That doesn’t fit the case system, as there it is attached to nouns/ pronouns - In comparison to Old English, case system has also been subjected to loss and attrition Even though we have different pronominal forms that could be interpreted as connected to different case forms, it is highly doubtful whether this should be described in terms of case system Only six suffixes in English - er, -est, -s, -ed, -th, -ing Articles inflect for case, number and gender syncretism = same articles invariant = do not inflect Proper names can go with a definite article “Ich bin der Peter” Gender in German is commonly described as ‘grammatical’, i.e. every noun has a gender value, even if there is no biological basis Neuter superordinate term (der Apfel, die Birne -> das Obst) Introverted -> female properties Die Anmut, Zagemut, Wehmut Extroverted -> male properties English has a ‘natural gender’ (biological) Der Hochmut, Übermut, Wagemut with metaphorical extensions (ships, Gender distinction -> agreement between countries, …) nouns, articles, adjectives, personal Gender only relevant for the choice of pronouns pronouns (=pronominal gender system) Stressed, deictic use of personal pronouns determined by semantic principles (Er/ sie only or humans/ higher animals) Tisch -> ihn -> diesen da p.60 Only anaphoric pronouns that refer to human beings/ animals can follow a preposition (mit ihm), with inanimate referents usage of an anaphor da-mit

(pro)nominal inflection severely reduced

Inflect for case and number

Plural Much more uniform than in German Suffix: -s, rest rather irregularities Suffix: -en/ -ren Vowel graduation: mouse/mice Zero-marking

Plural Plural: 5 noun classes (e.g. with schwadeletion) p. 58 Rather regular forms -> less predictable Suffix: -(e)n, (e), “(e), „(er), -s NP are marked for gender, case and number economical - Inflection is non-redundant distributed over article and noun - See also case marking and adjective E.g.: number making (der/die Trottel, das/die Pulver, die Rassel/n)

Nouns

Count nouns: lexical expressions Little/less – few/er Much/more – many/more

Count nouns: lexical expressions Wenig/er Viele/ mehr

Pronouns no mono-morphemic demonstrative pronouns for animate reference -> uses demonstrative determiners this and that (sometimes combined with one)

Pronouns Especially the nominative pronouns as well as the anaphoric third person pronouns seem to be completely idiosyncratic (unpredictable, eigen) Only genuine reflexive pronoun of German (sich) -> for third person (does not inflect for gender, number, case)

Pronouns Personal, relative, possessive, reflexive, indefinite, interrogative, demonstrative, impersonal

How do personal pronouns behave in this respect (isolating language)?     

Gefällt Ihnen die Kettensäge? – Ja, ich kann sie (Akkusative) gut gebrauchen. Welche Kettensäge genau? – ? Geben Sie mir SIE! (diese = change in demonstrative pronoun) Schaklin hat einen Fernseher bekommen. ?Sie hat den ganzen Nachmittag mit ihm verbracht. Das kleine Mädchen hat sein/ ihr Spielzeug mitgebracht. Sie freut sich. The more father away the pronoun is from the original noun, the more it follows the “biological gender”

Ambiguity – reference tracking My flatmate will meet his brother and his girlfriend in a pub. Mein Mitbewohner wird seinen Bruder und seine/dessen Freundin in einer Bar treffen.  Seine = possessive pronoun/ determiner  Would have the same structure and would be equally ambiguous  Dessen = form corresponding to genitive of the demonstrative pronoun  With the demonstrative pronoun we can clarify if the girlfriend of the brother is meant.

verbs

Inflect for tense (marginally also for person

Verbs inflect for person, number, tense,

and number), max. 4-5 inflectional forms

mood

exception: the copula be, manifest full paradigm of different forms  past tense: 3 allomorphs –t, -d,-ed  one genuine subjunctive form: were (‘If I were you, I would…’)  All other ‘subjunctive’ forms are a) simple base forms, b) past tense forms, c) verb + modal verbs (may your dreams come true)  Number of ‘quasi-subjunctives (p. 71-72) gaining ground (‘I insist that he go immediately’)

weak/ strong verbs  basic strong verbs: rare, number decreasing  weak verbs: provide template for all additions to the lexicon (p.70) Konjuktiv I = wishes/ to avoid commitment Konjunktiv II = for counterfactual statements

Morphological attrition (Verschleiß)  most categories of OE lost  weak/ strong verbs Why does the status of the ‘subjunctive’ shows that English is developing into isolation language?  Subjunctives = Konjunktive (to express wishes)  To what extent does English have a grammatical category of ‘subjunctive mood’?  Only genuine subjunctive form is “were” -> real subjunctive category?  AND: base forms used with a subjunctive implication -> indication of subjunctive being a grammatical category in its own right, because infinitive base forms can be distinguished from subjunctive base forms on distributional grounds  BUT: no morphological distinction -> can be interpreted as another instance of the tendency for English to abandon the morphological marking of grammatical categories -> developing into an isolating language (modal verbs had taken over the grammatical category of “subjunctive mood” -> mood distinctions on the verge of disappearing)  In general, analogously to gender system of Old English, case system has also been subjected to loss and attrition -> controversial whether one can still speak of ‘case’ distinction in English

No inflection in predicative nor in attributive position -ly attachment Derivational? – well, changes the word class Inflectional?- well, regular form that can be added to nearly every adj.

adjectives

adverbs

Only other inflectional form for adj. are comparative/ superlative forms  Synethetic/ inflectional or periphrastic/ analytical (see presentation)

-ly attachment

Do not inflect in predicative position, though in attributive position (for case, number, gender) Strong inflection: no determiner preceding the adjective “heißer Tee” Weak inflection: attributive adj. follow a determiner “der heiße Tee”

German just uses adjectives in adverbial

Verb + ly = adv. of manner Adj. + ly = adv. of degree Obviously, … = sentence adverbial

-ing forms (see presentation)

 zero forms especially in AE  Sometimes even different syntactic and semantic Properties Sure [AE] -> certainty surely [BE] -> uncertainty Deverbal adjectives (derived f. verbs)  Psych-verb (concerns the object)  E.g. Tom is very exciting. progressive adverbial participle = phrase with –ing form (Waiting for John,…) – omissible deverbal preposition – special case of adv. participle - acquiring the status of prepositions, pre- & postpositional use Following his lead/ His lead following, … Gerunds - same internal structure as adverbial participles, can’t be omitted, verblike characteristics -> adverbs (Carelessly) Hunting tigers is dangerous. Non-finite relative clause - Bill, waiting outside, was getting annoyed. Action nominalization (reading,…)

position

Same (schwimmen -> schwimmend)

G doesn't have progressive: als, während In German, we need a relative clause In German, we need a relative clause (oder: Seinen Angaben folgend, machten wir uns auf den Weg.) No Gerunds in German

In German, different structure of the relative clause (…, der draußen…,…) Same (Das Lesen)

Economy principle – in German  Says: grammatical categories need not be marked redundantly mehrfach within an NP  ‚division of labour‘ between articles and nouns in the marking case, gender and number in NPs  Principle can also be observed in case marking of adjectives and number marking  Gender is generally marked either on the determiner or on the adjective extra information

Inherent vs. non-inherent features  Non-inherent category (Einheitskatgorien): Case/ number -> property of the relevant word-form  Inherent category (Wortkategrien): Gender -> property of the whole paradigm (or lexeme)  Another inherent category: individuation, can assume one of three values  Proper names (def. article possible), count, mass nouns

Tense and aspect König und Gast Aktionsart Aktionsart is a cover term for predicate classes that interact with the availability and the meanings of aspect categories. It is needed as a basis for a comparative analysis of tense-aspect systems. E.g. restrictions on the use of specific formal categories (e.g. progressive) depending on the type of predicative. 

ongoing/ progress   

The four most commonly distinguished types are: - non-dynamic, usual. not in progressive 1. states (e.g. love, hate, own, like, be chocolate) 2. activities (e.g. eat chocolate, run, drive) - processes, progresses 3. achievements (e.g. drop, buy, catch, open) - instantaneous, end-point, punctual 4. accomplishments (e.g. eat a piece of choc., read a book) - protracted events - end-point, certain period states/ activities (1&2): homogenous (every part of the state/ activity = a state/ an activity) events (3&4): change of state either instantaneous or gradual Note that the aktionsart of a given verb may change depending on constituents it combines with (cf. drink vs. drink beers vs. drink a glass of beer).

Tense Meaning of tense is both deictic and relational, locates a situation in time relative to moment of utterance (deictic: position of the speaker + time [speaker as reference]) 

Fixed reference points such as the birth of a religious figure do not normally play a role for tense distinctions. (orientation in time and space)



It is rather the moment of utterance which serves as a starting point for tenses: Tenses relate a situation to the time of utterance. (something happen(ed) before/ now/ or later) Caution: Tenses are morphosyntactic categories. Therefore, to qualify as a tense a temporal distinction has to be systematically encoded in the grammatical system of a language.



Why is the number of tenses in English so controversial? 

on the basis of purely morphological distinction usually only two tenses distinguished: "Past" and "Non-Past"

 

Formal tense categories : Past [tense]/ Present [tense], Progressive [aspect] most forms (e.g. the future forms) are just built with auxilary verbs (in the present = non-past) + the main verb -> barely have any morphological distinctions o Jenny will eat/ is going to eat an apple [sentence in the Present with future reference] no complex past forms, only Perfect marker (have + -en/-ed) + verb o Jenny has eat en an apple. [Present + Perfect] o Jenny had eaten an apple. [Past + Perfect]



 

o Jenny will have eaten an apply. [Future + Perfect] In German, six tenses are distinguished In English, six different forms (Present + Past; 1-2 Future tenses; 3 Perfect forms, see above)

English and German make parallel formal distinctions, but different meanings/uses.

rather written unless with modal verbs, like "muss" rather spoken

all the time, up till now

Are English Present Perfect and German Perfekt always interchangeable? - Discuss! English Present Perfect (tied to properties of verb/ VP -> aktionsart)  resultative use (with respect to the Moment of

Utterance)  existential use o time interval started in the past (indefinite time) and includes the moment of utterance o 'existential presupposition' (means the referent of the subject must be still alive to have an ongoing event)  hot news 'The chancellor has resigned.'  universal use: 'I've been living here for 2 years.'



No future use! -> future perfect/ will-future



no narrative use! -> simple past

German Perfekt  resultative use (with respect to the MoU) o 'Schau mal, es hat geschneit.' o 'Mein Auto wurde gestohlen.'  existential use o time interval started in the past and includes the moment of utterance o to indicate this, we need adverbs like schon and erst 'Ich war schon/ erst einmal in Frankreich gewesen.'  hot news 'Der Kanzeler ist zurückgetreten.'  universal use: excludes the moment of speech o 'Ich habe seit 10 Jahren nicht mehr getanzt.' o ansonsten Präsens: 'Ich lebe hier ...'  Futurate use (usage with future reference) o 'Morgen Abend habe ich das gelesen.'  narrative use (developing into this, can co-occur with adverbials denoting the past) o 'Gestern sind wir ins Kino gegangen und haben uns den neusten Film angeschaut.'

Narrative use (German) o BUT: NOT interchangeable with the 'Präteritum' (Past tense), but often (especially in narrative use) just a stylistic difference o Präteritum (machte) rather written, but spoken when with modal verbs, like "muss"/ rather spoken Non-standard forms: German has replaced Präteritum and Plusquamperfekt by a ‘double perfect’. 1) a. Ich hab’ das gestern (hab ich das) schon auf Wordwise gesehen gehabt. b. Das Konzert war voll/ übelst geil gewesen.

Future time reference Describe the different expressive devices for referring to future time in English. Are there any differences in their meaning and use? Are similar distinctions made in German?  

question, whether there is a Future tense in English at all (see above) and which of all expressions with future time reference can be considered as such future is essentially open -> statements about future rather a matter of probability o talking about future reflects our intentions or predictions

English will-future (will/ shall + infinitive)  prediction, assumption, spontaneous action  no influence on it (You will be good at the exam!)  will -> pretty certain (lost volitional meaning)  shall -> close to expressing mere prediction

German Futur I  the auxiliary verb 'werden' (originally copula verb) can be used  traditionally regarded as the marker for Future tense 'Morgen beginnen die Vorlesungen.'

going to-future (going to + inf.) (lost 'motion' implicat.)  fulfillment of present intentions/ cause o planned action in the future o logical consequence ['It's going to rain.' clouds] Simple Present  use is restricted to regularities, habits and 'schedule events' -> future action is fixed (e.g. timetable) o 'the trains leaves at 8am.' o 'She starts her piano lessons tomorrow.'

Präsens  can be used as future reference in most contexts  used most frequently for future reference → difference of both is rather subtle, usually the use of the 'Präsens' form conveys more certainty 'Morgen werde ich was Schönes kochen.'

Present Progressive  arrangements, plans or programs have been made already -> relevant situation already under way o I'm eating dinner with Jeremy tonight.

Future Progressive  rare, it's meaning derived from its parts  certainty + already arranged o The water will be boiling soon. o We will be leaving in a minute.

Future Perfect (will + perfect)  sth. will already have happened before a certain time in the future o He will have finished his exam by next TUESDAY o Next Monday at this time I will have been writing my exams for two hours already.

Perfekt  with future reference o 'Morgen Abend habe ich das Kapitel gelesen.' o 'Nächsten Sonntag? Da sind wir schon umgezogen.'

Aspect Aspect: independent of when something takes place (= not deictic). Concerns the ways in which a given situation is viewed by the speaker, e.g. as completed (past) or ongoing (progressive).

Why should one not assume a progressive aspect in German? What makes the English Progressive different? English

German



fully grammaticalized aspectual oppositions (progressive vs. non-progressive) whereas in German only in the beginning developing aspectual systems



progressive can combine with all 'tenses', so does not constitute a tense category



can combine with non-verbal predications



o

He is being pervers/ rude/ a policeman.

o

adjectival structure (willful behavior)

o

nominal predications (imply play-acting) o

different forms (not required in German) Backgrounding (main usage, others extensions)

o 

She were there. She was sitting in the chair.



So far there are 300 people suffering. Interpretative use

o 

If you fail to plan you are planning to fail.



special form: non-verbal predications  He is being pervers/ rude/ a policeman.  adjectival structure (willful behavior)  nominal predications (imply play-acting) Emotive use

o 

can only be used for current happenings or temporal frames



In German, expressive devices (lexical/ grammatical devices) to express a similar meaning as the English progressive



in German, it is not obligatory: "gerade", "beim" and "ist" can be omitted



they are built under different rules and convey slitly different meanings. (p. 93)

Possible incompleteness

o

German is in the beginning of grammaticalization of aspectual opposition , so clear contextual restrictions:



(1) Ich fuhr gerade zur Uni, als der Typ sein Auto auf dem Radweg parkte und mir den Weg versperrte. (2) Stör lieber nicht, sie ist gerade am Lernen. (3) Morgen früh werden sie noch beim Schlafen sein. (4) Uli? Der ist/ war Aktiengeschäfte erledigen.

He is always doing this to me. Futurate use

o 

I'm going out tonight. Restricted habit

o 

John lives with his mom. Guess who is buying his clothes now?

What’s wrong with the following sentences? – (German progressive) → German more restricted (6) ?Ich mochte gerade Eis, als der Typ sein Auto auf dem Radweg parkte und mir den Weg versperrte.  Doesn’t work with certain verbs! (7) ?Stör lieber nicht, sie ist gerade ein Gedicht am Lernen.  Only works with verbs without objects (alternative: am Lernen eines Gedichts)

(8) ?Heute Abend wird er noch beim Ausschlafen sein. Gestern war doch Himmelfahrt!  Möglich, wenn auch vielleicht ungewöhnlich (9) ?Uli? Der ist Würste braten, hier neben mir, siehst du doch!  Does only work with Uli being somewhere else

Which use/s of the English Progressive is/are exemplified by the following dialogue – see p. 95? (9)

a. You are confusing issues , David. Your are not being i...