01 Social Influence T2U PDF

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AQA A LevelPsychologyTopic CompanionSocial InfluenceJoseph Sparks & Helen Lakintutor2u/psychology Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying PermittedContentsPage 2 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic COMPANION: SOCIAL INFLUENCETopic####### Conformity 3####### Conformity to socia...

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AQA A Level Psychology

Social Influence

Joseph Sparks & Helen Lakin

Page 2

AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic COMPANION: SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Contents Topic Conformity

www.tutor2u.net/psychology

3

Conformity to social roles

12

Explanations for obedience

15

Disposition explanations of obedience

21

Resisting social influence

24

Minority influence

28

Social change

31

Revision checklist

33

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AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: Social influence

TYPESOFCONFORMITY Specification:Typesofconformity:internalisation,identificationandcompliance. Explanationsforconformity:informationalsocialinfluenceandnormativesocial influence,andvariablesaffectingconformityincludinggroupsize,unanimityandtask difficultyasinvestigatedbyAsch.  WHATYOUNEEDTOKNOW  Describethethreetypesofconformity,including: o Compliance o Identification o Internalisation  Outlineandevaluatetwoexplanationsforconformity,including: o Informationalsocialinfluence o Normativesocialinfluence  OutlineandevaluateAsch’s(1951)originalresearchexaminingconformity.  OutlineandevaluatevariationsofAsch’sresearchwhichexaminedhowdifferentvariablesaffect conformity,including: o Groupsize o Unanimity o Taskdifficulty 

TypesofConformity Conformityisatypeofsocialinfluencethatdescribeshowapersonchangestheirattitudeorbehaviourin responsetogrouppressure.Therearemanydifferentsituationswherepeopleconformandpsychologists havecategorisedthreemaintypesofconformity,including:compliance,identificationandinternalisation.   Complianceistheshallowestlevelofconformity.Hereapersonchangestheirpublicbehaviour,the waytheyact,butnottheirprivatebeliefs.Thisisusuallyashort‐termchangeandisoftentheresultof normativesocialinfluence(NSI).Forexample,youmightsaythatyoulikedub‐stepmusicbecause manyotherpeopleinyourclasslikedub‐stepmusic,howeverprivatelyyoucan’tstandit.   Identificationisthemiddlelevelofconformity.Hereapersonchangestheirpublicbehaviourandtheir privatebeliefs,butonlywhiletheyareinthepresenceofthegroup.Thisisausuallyashort‐term changeandnormallytheresultofnormativesocialinfluence(NSI).Forexample,apersonmaydecide tobecomeavegetarianbecausealloftheirnewflatmatesarevegetarian.However,wheneverthey walkpastaMcDonald’stheycan’tresistaBigMacandwhentheyareawayfromtheirflatmatesthey stilleatmeat.Identificationtakesplacewhenwearesurroundedbyaparticulargroup;wechangeour privatebeliefswhileinthepresenceofthemajoritybutnotpermanently.   Internalisationisthedeepestlevelofconformity.Hereapersonchangestheirpublicbehaviourand theirprivatebeliefs.Thisisusuallyalong‐termchangeandoftentheresultofinformationalsocial influence(ISI).Forexample,ifanindividualisinfluencedbyagroupofBuddhistsandconvertstothis faith,thentheirnewreligiouswayoflifewillcontinuewithoutthepresenceofthegroupastheyhave internalisedthisbelief. 

ExplanationsforConformity Inadditiontothethreetypesofconformity(compliance,identificationandinternalisation)which describehowpeopleconform,therearealsotwoexplanationsofwhypeopleconform,including:

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AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: Social influence

normativesocialinfluence(NSI)andinformationalsocialinfluence(ISI).  Normativesocialinfluence(NSI)iswhenapersonconformstobeacceptedandtofeelthattheybelongto thegroup.Hereapersonconformsbecauseitissociallyrewarding,ortoavoidsocialrejection;for example,toavoidfeelingthattheydon’t‘fitin’.Normativesocialinfluenceisusuallyassociatedwith complianceandidentification.Withcompliance,peoplechangetheirpublicbehaviourbutnottheir privatebeliefs;withidentificationpeoplechangetheirpublicbehaviourandtheirprivatebeliefs,butonly inthepresenceofthegroup.Therefore,thisexplanationofsocialinfluenceleadstoashort‐termtypeof conformity,whichismotivatedbythedesiretofitinwiththemajority.  Informationalsocialinfluence(ISI)iswhenapersonconformstogainknowledge,orbecausetheybelieve thatsomeoneelseis‘right’.Informationalsocialinfluenceisusuallyassociatedwithinternalisation,where apersonchangesboththeirpublicbehaviourandtheirprivatebeliefs,onalong‐termbasis.Thissemi‐ permanentchangeinbehaviourandbeliefistheresultofapersonadoptinganewbeliefsystem,because theygenuinelybelievethattheirnewbeliefsare‘right’orthatthemajorityare‘experts’.Forexample,ifa personchangestheirpoliticalideologyfromConservativetoLiberal,thentheyhaveinternalisedthesenew beliefsonasemi‐permanentbasisandbelievethatvotingLiberalis‘right’forthem.   CHANGEINPUBLIC CHANGEINPRIVATE SHORT‐TERM/LONG‐ BEHAVIOUR? BELIEF? TERM COMPLIANCE

Yes

No

Short‐term

IDENTIFICATION

Yes

Yes (Onlyinthepresenceof themajority)

Short‐term

INTERNALISATION

Yes

Yes

Long‐term

 ExamHint:Itisimportanttoensurethatyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweentypesofconformity (compliance,identificationandinternalisation)andtheexplanationsforconformity(normativeand informationalsocialinfluence). 

EvaluatingExplanationsforConformity 

Asch’s(1951)studyintoconformity(seebelow)providesresearchsupportfornormativesocial influence.Hefoundthatmanyoftheparticipantswentalongwiththeobviouslywronganswersofthe othergroupmembers.WhenaskedbyAschinpost‐experimentalinterviewswhytheydidthis, participantssaidthattheychangedtheiranswertoavoiddisapprovalfromtherestofthegroup,which clearlyshowsthatcompliancehadoccurredastheparticipantsconformedinorderto‘fitin’.Further tothis,Aschdemonstratedinalatervariation(1955)thatwhenthepressuretopubliclyconformis removedbyaskingparticipantstowritedowntheiranswersonapieceofpaper,ratherthansaythem aloud,theconformityratesfellto12.5%asthefearofrejectionbecamefarless.



Jenness(1932,seebelow)providesresearchsupportfortheroleofinformationalsocialinfluence. Participantswereaskedtoinitiallymakeindependentjudgementsaboutthenumberofbeans containedinajarandthendiscusstheirestimatesinagroup.Participantsthenmadeasecond, individualprivateestimate.Jennessfoundthatthissecondprivateestimatemovedclosertothegroup estimateandthatfemalestypicallyconformedmore.Thisshowsthatinternalisationofgroupbeliefs willoccurespeciallyinunfamiliar,ambiguoussituations.



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AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: Social influence 

Individualdifferencesmayplayaroleinexplainingsocialinfluence,whichmeansthattheprocesses willnotaffecteveryone’sbehaviourinthesameway.Forexample,PerrinandSpencer(1980) conductedanAsch‐styleexperiment,butthistimeusingengineeringstudentsintheUK.Onlyone conformingresponsewasobservedoutofnearly400trials.Thiscouldbeduetothefactthatthe studentsfeltmoreconfidentintheirabilitytojudgelinelengthsduetotheirexperienceinengineering andsofeltlesspressuretoconform.Alternatively,itcouldbearguedthatthisdifferenceisduetoa historicalbiasfromcomparingresearchconductedinadifferenteraandalmost30yearsapartwhere rapidsocialchangeshaveemergedandnormshavechanged.



Therearereal‐worldapplicationswhichdemonstratethatnormativesocialinfluencealsooccurs beyondtheartificiallaboratorysetting.Forexample,Schultzetal.(2008)gathereddatafrommany hotelsoveraweekwhereguestswereallocatedtoroomsrandomlyaseithercontrolorexperimental conditions.Inthecontrolrooms,therewasadoorhangerinformingtheparticipantsofthe environmentalbenefitsofreusingtowels.Intheexperimentalcondition,therewasadditional informationstatingthat‘75%ofguestschosetoreusetheirtowelseachday’.Theresultsshowedthat incomparisontothecontrolconditions,guestswhoreceivedamessagethatcontainednormative informationaboutotherguestsreducedtheirneedforfreshtowelsby25%,showingtheyhad conformedinorderto‘fitin’withtheperceivedgroupbehaviour.





KeyStudy:Jenness(1932) Aim:Toexaminewhetherindividualswillchangetheiropinioninanambiguous(unclear)situation,in responsetogroupdiscussion.  Method:Jennessusedanambiguoussituationthatinvolvedaglassbottlefilledwith811whitebeans.His sampleconsistedof26students,whoindividuallyestimatedhowmanybeansthattheglassbottle contained.Participantswerethendividedintogroupsofthreeandaskedtoprovideagroupestimate throughdiscussion.Followingthediscussion,theparticipantswereprovidedwithanotheropportunityto individuallyestimatethenumberofbeans,toseeiftheychangedtheiroriginalanswer.   MALES FEMALES AVERAGEESTIMATEBEFORE

790

925

AVERAGEESTIMATEAFTER

695

878

AVERAGECHANGE

256

382

 Results:Jennessfoundthatnearlyallparticipantschangedtheiroriginalanswerwhentheywereprovided withanotheropportunitytoestimatethenumberofbeansintheglassbottle.Onaverage,male participantschangedtheiranswersby256beansandfemaleparticipantschangedtheiranswersby382 beans.Furthermore,therangeofthewholegroupwentfrom1,875beforethediscussionto474 afterward,adecreaseof75percent,whichdemonstratestheconvergingopinionsoftheparticipants, aftertheirdiscussions.  Conclusion:Theseresultssuggestthatindividualschangedtheirinitialestimateduetoinformationalsocial influence,astheybelievedthatthegroupestimatesweremorelikelytobecorrect,incomparisontotheir own. 

KeyStudy:Asch(1951) Aim:Toexaminetheextenttowhichsocialpressuretoconformfromunanimousmajorityaffects Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying Permitted

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AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: Social influence

conformityinanunambiguoussituation.  Method:Asch’ssampleconsistedof123maleundergraduatestudentsfromSwarthmoreCollegeinthe USA,whobelievedtheyweretakingpartinavisiontest.Aschusedalinejudgementtask,whereheplaced onereal(naïve)participantinaroomwithsixtoeightconfederates(actorsworkingonbehalfofthe experimenter),whohadagreedtheiranswersinadvance.Thenaïveparticipantwasdeceivedandwasled tobelievethattheotherpeoplewerealsorealparticipants.Therealparticipantwasalwaysseatedsecond fromlast.  Inturn,eachpersonhadtosayoutloudwhichline(A,BorC)wasmostlikethetargetlineinlength.Unlike Jenness’experiment,thecorrectanswerwasalwaysobvious.Eachparticipantcompleted18trialsandthe confederatesgavethesameincorrectansweron12trials,called‘criticaltrials’.Aschwantedtoseeifthe realparticipantwouldconformtothemajorityview,evenwhentheanswerwasclearlyincorrect.  Results:Aschmeasuredthenumberoftimeseachparticipantconformedtothemajorityview.Onaverage, therealparticipantsconformedtotheincorrectanswerson32%ofthecriticaltrials.74%ofthe participantsconformedonatleastonecriticaltrialand26%oftheparticipantsneverconformed.Aschalso usedacontrolgroup,inwhichonerealparticipantcompletedthesameexperimentwithoutany confederates.Hefoundthatlessthan1%oftheparticipantsgaveanincorrectanswer.  Conclusion:Aschinterviewedhisparticipantsaftertheexperimenttofindoutwhytheyconformed.Most oftheparticipantssaidthattheyknewtheiranswerswereincorrect,buttheywentalongwiththegroupin ordertofitin,orbecausetheythoughtthattheywouldberidiculed.Thisconfirmsthatparticipants compliedduetonormativesocialinfluenceandthedesiretofitinpubliclywithoutchangingtheirprivate viewpoint. 

EvaluatingAsch 

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Aschusedabiasedsampleof123malestudentsfromcollegesinAmerica.Therefore,wecannot generalisetheresultstootherpopulations,forexamplefemalestudents,asweareunabletoconclude whetherfemalestudentswouldhaveconformedinasimilarwaytomalestudents.Asaresult,Asch’s samplelackspopulationvalidityandfurtherresearchisrequiredtodeterminewhethermalesand femalesconformdifferently. Furthermore,itcouldbearguedthatAsch’sexperimenthaslowlevelsofecologicalvalidity.Asch’s testofconformity,alinejudgementtask,isanartificialtask,whichdoesnotreflectconformityin everydaylifewhichmeansthetasklacksmundanerealism.Consequently,weareunabletogeneralise theresultsofAschtootherreal‐lifesituations,suchaswhypeoplemaystartsmokingordrinking aroundfriends,andthereforetheseresultsarelimitedintheirapplicationtoeverydaylife. Asch’sresearchtookplaceataparticulartimeinUShistorywhenconformitywasarguablyhigherand hasbeencriticisedasbeing‘achildofitstime’.Since1950,numerouspsychologistshaveattemptedto replicateAsch’sstudy,forexamplePerrinandSpencer(1980)usingmathsandengineeringstudents, andfoundsignificantlylowerlevelsofconformity.ThissuggeststhatAsch’sexperimentlackshistorical validityandtheconformityratesfoundin1950maynotprovideanaccuratereflectionofconformityin moderntimes. Asch’sresearchisethicallyquestionable.Hebrokeseveralethicalguidelines,including:deceptionand protectionfromharm.Aschdeliberatelydeceivedhisparticipants,sayingthattheyweretakingpartin avisiontestandnotanexperimentonconformity.Althoughitisseenasunethicaltodeceive participants,Asch’sexperimentrequireddeceptioninordertoachievevalidresults.Iftheparticipants www.tutor2u.net/psychology

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wereawareofthetrueaimtheymayhavedisplayeddemandcharacteristicsandacteddifferently.In addition,Asch’sparticipantswerenotprotectedfrompsychologicalharmandmanyoftheparticipants reportedfeelingstressedwhentheydisagreedwiththemajority.However,Aschinterviewedallofhis participantsfollowingtheexperimenttoovercomethisissue. 

VariationsofAsch FollowingAsch’soriginalresearch,numerousvariationsofhislinejudgementtaskwerecarriedoutin ordertodeterminewhichfactorsinfluencedconformitylevels.Thesevariationsinclude:groupsize, unanimityandtaskdifficulty. 

GroupSize Aschcarriedoutmanyvariationstodetermine howthesizeofthemajorityaffectstherateof conformity.Thesevariationsrangedfromone confederateto15confederates,andthelevelof conformityvarieddramatically.Whentherewas1 confederate,therealparticipantsconformedon just3%ofthecriticaltrials.Whenthegroupsize increasedtotwoconfederates,thereal participantsconformedon12.8%ofthecritical trials.Interestingly,whentherewerethree confederates,therealparticipantsconformedon 32%ofthecriticaltrials,thesamepercentageas Asch’soriginalexperiment,inwhichtherewere sixtoeightconfederates.Thisdemonstratesthat conformityreachesitshighestlevelwithjust threeconfederates,onceamajoritypressureis created.  Aschcontinuedinvestigatinggroupsizeandinoneconditionheused15confederates.Inthisexperiment therateofconformityslightlydropped(~29%).Itispossiblethattherateofconformitydroppedbecause therealparticipantsbecamesuspiciousoftheexperimentandnotbecausethepressuretoconformis necessarilylessinlargergroups.

 Unanimity Unanimityreferstotheextentthatmembersofamajorityagreewithoneanother.InAsch’soriginal experiment,theconfederatesallgavethesameincorrectansweronthecriticaltrials.Inonevariationof Asch’sexperiment,oneoftheconfederateswasinstructedtogivethecorrectanswerthroughout.Inthis variation,therateofconformitydroppedto5%.Thisdemonstratesthatiftherealparticipanthassupport fortheirbelief,thentheyarelikelymorelikelytoresistthepressuretoconform.Furthermore,inanother variation,oneoftheconfederatesgaveadifferentincorrectanswertothemajority.Inthisvariation conformitystilldroppedsignificantly,bythistimeto9%.Thisshowsthatifyoubreakordisruptthegroup’s unanimousposition,thenconformityisreducedsignificantly,eveniftheanswerprovidedbythesupporter isstillincorrect. 

TaskDifficulty InAsch’soriginalexperiment,thecorrectanswerwasalwaysobvious.Inoneofhisvariationshemadethe taskmoredifficult,bymakingthedifferencebetweenthelinelengthssmallerandthereforeappearcloser togetherandmoreambiguous.Inthisvariation,Aschfoundtherateofconformityincreased,althoughhe Copyright tutor2u Limited / School Network License / Photocopying Permitted

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didn’treportthepercentage.Thisislikelytobetheresultofinformationalsocialinfluence,asindividuals looktoanotherforguidancewhenundertakinganambiguoustask,similartotheresultsfoundinJenness’ experiment,inordertobe‘right’.  CONFORMITY% VARIATION (CRITICALTRIALS) GroupSize:1Confederate Lower(3%) GroupSize:2Confederates Lower(12.8%) GroupSize:3Confederates Remainedthesame(32%) GroupSize:15Confederates Lower(~29%)   Unanimity–Whereoneoftheconfederatesgavethecorrect Lower(5%) answerthroughout. Unanimity–Whereoneoftheconfederatesgaveadifferent Lower(9%) incorrectanswertothemajority.   TaskDifficulty–Wherethetaskwasmadesignificantlymore difficult,bymakingthedifferencebetweenthelinelengths Higher* significantlysmaller. *ThepercentageswerenotpublishedbyAsch. 

ExtensionEvaluation:IssuesandDebates 

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Socialpsychologyacknowledgestheroleofsituationalfactors,suchasgrouppressure,indetermining humanbehavioursuchasconformity.However,italsosuggeststhatindividualscanexercisepersonal responsibilityfortheiractionsanddemonstratefreewillthroughshowingindependentbehaviour. Explanationsofconformity(NSI/ISI)adoptanomotheticapproachastheyattempttoprovidegeneral principlesrel...