1001PSY Learning Objectives PDF

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1001PSY Learning Objectives

Week 5 •

Describe the two main functions of consciousness

Consciousness is the awareness of thoughts and actions which can be describe into two functions: awareness and unawareness. Meaning being conscious or unconscious. •

Distinguish among the different theoretical perspectives on consciousness

There are many theoretical perspectives which form the reason which individual are conscious or unconscious of. According to Feud, the psychodynamic perspective states that every individual have unconscious and hidden motives. Metaphorically, it is described as an iceberg, the ice below the water is the motives of the individual. Noting that there is a lot of motives that we do not know our selves. Cognitive perspective illustrates the input and output of every individual. Similarly like a computer which gathers data and formulates a result. Biological perspective presents the idea which individuals have dreams as the cortex are randomly firing neuron. •

Describe the functions of sleep and distinguish among the psychological views of dreaming

Sleep is a state of consciousness. It presents a cycle which is approximately 90mins altogether. The first stage which is being awake. The next stage is NREM. Which is known for non-rapid eye movements. It includes stages 1, 2, 3 & 4. Within stages 1 & 2, there are theta EEG waves which include K-complex (high amplitude) and spindles (burst of high energy). then transitioned to stages 3&4, where there are slow delta waves. Overall, the body is preparing itself for REM sleep as BP is decreased and the body is relaxed. If woken up within NREM stage, the individual will feel groggy. The final stage of sleep is REM (rapid eye movements) which is stage 5. The EEG waves mimics the waves when you are awake. During this stage you go under motor paralysis, meaning that your body will not be moving except your diaphragm. And that there will be darting eye movements in interval periods. It is known that dreaming and nightmares occur within this stage. •

Explain how people might experience altered states of consciousness

There are other methods which people can experience an altered state of consciousness. Individuals can either take in a stimulus or depressant or can other go activities such as meditation or hypnosis. Stimulus: is a substance which maintains the optimal level of arousal. Meaning that the individual is hyper and alert. A stimulus such as coffee, contains caffeine which allows the individual to feel awake and alert for the day. Depressant: is a substance which slows down physical activity. An example of a depressant is alcohol. Hallucinogens: produce dramatic change in consciousness. Opiates: reduced and supress physical sensation. Meditation and hypnosis Week 7 •

Describe memory and outline the model of information processing

Memory is the process which we observe from our environments, so in the future we can retrieve for a purpose. The 3 processes of memory are: encoding, storage and retrieval. There are models which presents the information processing, which is seen below. Atkinson and Shiffrin model, it is also known as the information processing model.

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This model demonstrates the human memory system within 3 main distinct categories. It illustrates that information can be lost through out the types of memory we have encoded. Sensory registers: is the stimulus/ environment we are surrounded in and we can hold information 1-2 secs. It can be split into subdivisions, which are iconic (visual) and echoic (sounds). If we are not paying an attention, information is filtered and forgotten. However, if we do pay attention, moves into the short-term memory. Short-term memory has the duration of approximately 10-20 secs. Evidently, it presents that short-term memory can be rehearsed to transform into long-term memory. •

Describe working memory

Working memory possess a temporary storage and is the process of information being used. Process such as problem solving, responding to stimulus and achieving goals require working memory. •

Outline the major types of long-term memory

Declarative (a way to remember is the we can declare declarative memories) which is classified in 2 classes episodic or sematic memory. Episodic is like an autobiography, we can recall our memories. Sematic is the generic knowledge we have.

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Describe how information is encoded and organised in long-term memory

There are many methods which information can be encoded and organisation in to long-term memory. Methods include; Self-referent encoding- is a method which an individual can personalised information that can be related to themselves. Elaboration- it means that individuals can encode information with many examples and association with a topic. Rehearsal- repeating the information till it is memorised Visual encoding- pairing an image with a word Dual coding- associations, usually will word you can form imagery. Chunking- grouping and remembering collective •

Explain why remembering, misremembering, and forgetting occurring.

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7 sins depend on the frequency of retrieval of memory but also in time it can weaken strength and detail of memory. It includes; Bias- manipulated and distortion of recall RememberingDecay theory: time and forgetting Absent minded- you need to pay attention to remember Suggestibility- we think we remember Forgetting- inability to remember/ retrieve information As seen below, the rate of forgetting is the same, while the only difference is the initial information that is retained.

Week 9 and 10 Distinguish between Sensation & Perception

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Sensation is the raw information- the gathering of information Perception- is the interpretation and organisation of the information Outline the basic principles & processes that apply across all senses

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It is not only one-on-one correspondence Active processes Adaptive Transduction- is the sensation translating and transforming into neuron signals to the brain

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Understand sensory thresholds and the laws that govern them.

Minimum amount to sensation which is detected The Just Noticeable Difference (JND) which is when an individual can detect the amount of difference or change in the stimulus. Sensory threshold

LAWS? Weber -

Constant proportion Recognized Second must be different with a constant to be perceived Ratio of change before JND have enough a difference to detect

Fechner -

Logarithmically

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Extend weber Greater stimulus = greater the difference Depend of stimulus that must be added to notice

For example, broke arm under piano

Steven power -

Exponentially Extension but address short coming Not one-on-one

Overall these laws sensation prediction

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Describe the processes common to all sensory systems

All sensory systems possess: Sensory receptors: Requires minimal amount of stimulus to detect/ sense:

Sensory adaption is the adaption to a change while constant stimulus. As example would be perfume •

Explain how light wavelengths are transformed into vision and colour

Transduction And the pathways Photoreceptors Rods and cones = neutral signal / action potential Rods- dim light, sensitive cones- colour Bleaching- change chemical structure = create action potential Rods cone= photoreceptors= ganglion cell What (what is the information) and where (proximality) path ways •

Describe the various ways in which perception is organised: •

Top-down and bottom-up

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Gestalt Laws or perceptual organization

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Organisation in 3-dimensional space

Top-down you already familiar with sensation. Meaning that you have perceived the stimulus without fully observing it. An example would be that it any angle you look at a pie tin, you know it will maintain its shape and material properties. While bottom- up you are not familiar with the stimulus. Thereby, you are learning Impilcts and explicit

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Perceptual or- too much to deal with = to deal with info Gestalt- state Perceptual rules to organise automatically Like a short cut speed up process Make it less effort law Figure ground, proximity, similarity Simplicity Good continuation Closure

3 dimensions

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Perceptual constancies

Perceptual Constancy Defined. Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive an object you are familiar with as having a constant shape, size, and brightness despite the stimuli changes that occur Depth or distance perception =binocular cue (visual input from 2 eyes) – accommodation (convergence& divergence), •

=monocular (visual input from one eye)- Interposition: one object blocks another

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Linear perspective: lines converge

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Texture gradient: Distant objects appear finer

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Shading: 3D objects cast shadows

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Ariel perspective: Far objects are fuzzy

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Familiar size: Familiar objects that appear small are inferred to be distant

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Relative size: The smaller of 2 objects is seen as further away Week 11

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Define learning

Way of change for an organism to respond differently to the stimulus. •

Different forms of learning

Reflex are the natural movements for a human to survive. For example, blinking Habituation is decreasing a response of a stimulus, it is also related to adaption. •

Describe the basic principles underlying classical conditioning –

The basics and what get conditioned

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Fundamental classical conditioning

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Applications of classical conditioning

Condition occurs when there is a new association between 2 previously unrelated stimuli. It was discovered when a stimulus is presented there is a corresponding response. Unconditional stimulus (UCS)- is the initial stimulus/ natural state of external environment Unconditional response (UCR)- initial response Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a change of stimulus Conditioned response (CR)- the reflected response to the change stimulus As there is a change of stimulus it will correspond with a change of behaviour, physiology, emotion and cognitions.

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Extinction- Conditioned response is not present when the in conditional stimulus. It varies depending on time. it is thought that extinction was unlearning the conditioned response, however it is the learning the inhibition of responding. An example of everyday extinction would be getting over a phobia. Spontaneous recovery- After extinction for a certain period, if something triggers within the conditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus will appear. Stimulus generalisation-similarity of stimulus will be categorized. Thereby, if a stimulus is like the intended conditioned stimulus, then there will be a corresponding response (conditional response). Stimulus dicrimationAssociation- 2 unrelated stimulus together

Timing of which the conditioned stimulus will to the responds

EXAMPLE Every now and then an ice cream truck that plays the Play School theme song drives past little Benjamin’s house. Whenever Benjamin eats the ice cream from the truck he gets excited. One morning, his sister Emily turned on the television and the Play School theme song started to play. Benjamin jumped around excitedly repeating the word ‘ice-cream’ •

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = ice-cream

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Unconditioned Response (UCR) = excited

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = the song/ tune

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Conditioned Response (CR) =excited

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The law of effect

Cause and effect It is predictable that there will be a punishment/ reward after a behaviour •

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

We learn because of the outcome. Thereby, changing behaviour Reinforcements (+/- and primary and secondary reinforcer, schedule) and punishment (+/- and negative as can make the association to punishment to punisher)

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Timing of the reinforcements Fixed-interval= rewarded after a set amount of time. Eg paid hourly Variable-interval= reinforcement based on varying and unpredictable amounts of time eg Fixed-ratio= a set number of responses must occur before the behavior is rewarded eg pickers are paid a certain amount (reinforcement) based on the amount they pick (behavior), which encourages them to pick faster in order to make more money.

Variable-Ratio=the number of responses needed for a reward varies. Eg slot machine pays out an average win ratio—say five to one—but does not guarantee that every fifth bet (behavior) will be rewarded (reinforcement) with a win.

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Cognitive-Social Learning

Observing learning An example of genitive-social learning would be BoBo doll There are conditions to social learning. Observer must have attention to the stimulus that is show, able to retain the information, have the ability respond and have a motivation to respond. This stemmed to the theory of learning helplessness. Learning helplessness is Week 12 •

Describe the various units of thought

Categories- grouping of based off common properties Concepts- classified on their properties Superordinate- broad and more abstract than basic Subordinates- more specific than basic Basic- the most inclusive Hierarchy- is a structure that represents an order Phototypes- what we typically think (image representation) when presented a basic

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Distinguish between reasoning, problem solving, and decision making

Reason- similar, association, Problem solving: clarifying, strategies- algorithms (set of rules systematically, mental rehearsal of steps, Barriers to problem solving- functional fixedness, confirmation, Deductive= general to specific Inductive= specific to general= belief bias Decision making: weights up pros and cons •

Describe the role of explicit and implicit cognition in everyday thinking

Explicit- conscious manipulation of mental representation Implicit- unconscious = behavior Psychodynamic-Motive and emotions Behaviorist- learn generalize and discriminate

Practice questions presented in the tutor 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Define sensation and perception and outline the three basic principles which emerge? (5marks) List the phases of sleep and some typical characteristics of each phase (5marks) State, explain and provide examples of three methods of enriching sematic encoding (5marks) List some features common to all sensory systems (5marks) Describe the theory that proposes individual who have learned that no matter what action they take they cannot escape aversive events (5marks) Discuss and define the findings of Pablo dog (5marks) What are the 3 basic principles that apply to all senses? (3 marks)

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